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Article 2 Psychology
Are you interested in the behaviour of people and animals? If you are, then you might
enjoy the study of psychology. Psychology is the study of behaviour, but this is a very
large area of study. There are several different branches of psychology, each of which
studies a different aspect of behaviour.
Social psychologists study interactions among people. For example, a social
psychologist might try to learn about the situations that cause people to behave
aggressively. Another question studied by social psychologists is why certain people
become attracted to each other. One of the interesting problems in social psychology is
conformity: what causes people to behave in the same way, and to follow what others do
and say?
Cognitive psychologists study thinking, memory, and language. One problem studied by
cognitive psychologists is how people remember numbers. For example, what is the best
way to memorize some numbers? Is it better to repeat the numbers to oneself, or to try to
attach some meaning to these numbers? A cognitive psychologist might also study
language. For example, why can young children learn a second language so quickly and
easily? Cognitive psychologists are also interested in the ways that people learn to solve
problems, such as finding a new place.
Clinical psychologists study mental illnesses. For example, a clinical psychologist might
try to find out the causes of depression and to figure out ways of helping people who are
depressed. Other clinical psychologists might study the behaviour of people who suffer
from addiction to drugs, so that this problem can be prevented and treated. Another topic
of interest to clinical psychologists is violent behaviour. It is very important to find ways
of preventing violence and to change the behaviour of persons who act violently.
Some psychologists are interested in the measurement of psychological characteristics.
For example, psychologists might develop tests to assess a person's intelligence,
personality traits, or interests. These tests can be used to help people make decisions
about education, occupation, and clinical treatment.
Psychologists who study the behaviour of animals are called ethologists. Ethologists
often go into wilderness areas to watch the activity of birds, fish, or other animals. These
psychologists try to figure out why it is that some animals have "instincts" for various
behaviours such as parenting, mating, or fighting. Some ethologists have learned very
much about the unusual behaviours observed in many animals.
These are only a few of the many areas of psychology. Truly, psychology is one of the
most interesting areas of knowledge!

Article 3 Corruption
When an official of a government or business is acting dishonestly, we say that this
person is corrupt. Corruption is a serious problem in many countries around the world.
There are several different kinds of corrupt practices, including bribes, kickbacks, nepotism, and embezzlement.
A bribe is a payment of money or some other benefit, in exchange for a decision that
would not otherwise be made. For example, an accused criminal might bribe a judge so
that the judge would make a decision of "not guilty." Another example is that a business
owner might bribe a government official so that the official would allow the construction
of very unsafe buildings.
A kickback is similar to a bribe, except that the official receives some part of the money
in a dishonest business deal. For example, governments sometimes decide which
company should build a road. A company might offer money to the government official
who makes the decision, so that this company will be chosen, even if it is not the best
company for the job.
Nepotism happens when an official unfairly gives advantages to his or her relatives. For
example, a government official might hire a brother or sister to do a job even though
other people would be much better qualified for the job. Of course, all of us want to help
our relatives, but it is wrong to do this at the expense of the public.
Embezzlement happens when an official secretly steals some money from a company or
government. For example, a manager at a company might secretly move some of the
company's money to his or her own bank account, or that manager might lie about his or
her expenses in order to receive more payment from the company.
Corruption has very bad effects on people, in several ways. Sometimes it can lead to
very dangerous situations. One example of this is when unsafe construction projects are
approved by officials who have been bribed. Another example is when criminals are
freed as a result of bribes. Also, a country's economy can be damaged by corruption. For
example, if companies must pay bribes in order to do business, then they may decide to
leave the country. Also, if people's tax money is stolen by corrupt officials, this makes
the people poorer. In addition, when company officials are corrupt, it makes the company
less able to compete with other companies.
How can corruption be stopped? An important step is for each person to decide not to
act in ways that are corrupt. People must agree to take this problem seriously. Also, each
company and each government must have strict rules about corruption. It must be very
clear to all employees-from the lowest to the highest-that corruption is totally
unacceptable.

 Article 5 Two Great Artists : Leonardo and Michelangelo
Many people admire the paintings and sculptures that artists create. Some very beautiful
paintings and sculptures were created by two men who lived in the same country at the
same time. These men were Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. They both lived in Italy
around the year 1500.
Leonardo da Vinci is most famous for his painting called the Mona Lisa. This is perhaps
the best-known painting in the world. The Mona Lisa shows the head and shoulders of a
dark-haired woman. When people look at this painting, they are often captivated by her
smile and by her eyes, which have a look of mystery.
Another painting of Leonardo's is called The Last Supper. This painting shows a famous
scene from the Christian religion. In this painting, Jesus Christ is seated at the middle of
a long table, with his followers (the disciples) seated around him. Many of the paintings
that were created at this time have a religious theme.
Leonardo was not only an artist; he was also interested in engineering. He actually
worked for some time as an advisor to a military leader, helping him to develop new
machines for use in war. Leonardo also made rough drawings of machines that are similar to those that were invented much later, such as submarines and helicopters.
Obviously, Leonardo was an extremely creative man.
Michelangelo was about 23 years younger than Leonardo. In addition to being a painter,
Michelangelo was also a sculptor, and many experts consider him the greatest sculptor
of all time. One of his most famous sculptures is David, which is a statue of a young man
who was a famous figure in the Bible. Another great sculpture of Michelangelo's is called
the Pieta. The Pieta shows Mary, the mother of Jesus, holding the body of her son across
her lap.
Michelangelo is also famous for painting the ceiling of a church known as the Sistine
Chapel. The leader of the Roman Catholic Church, Pope Julius, asked Michelangelo to
paint the ceiling of this new church. This project required many years of hard work, and
the Pope complained that it took too long. However, when the work was finished, the
ceiling of the Sistine Chapel was covered with beautiful paintings of many scenes from
the Bible.
Fortunately, many of the works of Leonardo and of Michelangelo can still be seen today
in the art galleries of Europe. During the past 500 years, the color of the paintings had
faded somewhat, but in recent years, some work has been done to restore the paintings
to their original appearance.

Article 6 The Viking
About a thousand years ago, people known as the Vikings were known and feared
throughout Europe. The Vikings were the people of the northern part of Europe, called
Scandinavia, which includes the modern countries of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.
The Vikings made their living by farming and fishing. However, by about the year 700,
they began making attacks, or raids, upon towns along the coasts of Europe in order to
steal the wealth of those towns.
The Vikings made their attacks very quickly and without any warning. They were very
cruel to the people of the towns they attacked, and they sometimes destroyed the towns
by burning down the buildings. In some parts of Europe, the local kings would often fight
against the Vikings. Sometimes, however, the kings would pay the Vikings in order to
persuade them not to attack.
Although the Vikings were known as fierce warriors, they also built excellent ships. The
wooden Viking ships, called longboats, were able to sail even in very bad weather. Many
Viking longboats were about 20 metres long, but some were nearly 90 metres long. The
Viking sailors used both sails and oars to move their ships.
The Vikings travelled across a large area. They made many of their attacks in Britain,
France, and Germany, but sometimes sailed south, into the Mediterranean Sea. Other
Vikings moved to the east, and then south along the rivers of Russia. Some even went as
far as the area that is now the country of Turkey. In some places, the Vikings decided to
stay. Many Vikings settled in England and in France, and eventually they mixed with the
local people. Other Vikings settled in Russia and also mixed with the people there.
The most famous travels of the Vikings were in the Atlantic Ocean. Vikings sailed
westward to the island of Iceland where many of them stayed. Today, the people of
Iceland are descended from the Vikings. Some Vikings sailed farther west to the cold
island of Greenland. Vikings lived in Greenland for several generations, but eventually
they died out. Some Vikings had gone even further west and reached the Canadian island of Newfoundland. The Vikings only stayed for a few years, but they had reached North
America about 500 years before Christopher Columbus!
Gradually, the Vikings became converted to the Christian religion. They also stopped
raiding the towns of Europe, and instead of fighting, they began trading with their
neighbors. Today, the Scandinavian countries are known as very peace-loving nations. 

 Article 8 Ice Hockey
One of the most popular sports in northern countries is the game of ice hockey. Each
winter, this sport is played by hundreds of thousands of children and adults in North America and in Europe. Ice hockey is a fast and exciting game that can make winter
much more enjoyable.
The game of ice hockey is played on a flat surface of ice called a rink. The rink is about
60 metres long, and about 25 or 30 metres wide. At any time, each team has six players
on the ice. On their feet the players wear skates, whose thin metal blades allow fast
movement along the ice surface. Learning to skate requires time and practice, but many
people can skate very quickly and smoothly.
In many ways, ice hockey is similar to soccer. However, unlike soccer, there is no large
ball used in hockey. Instead, the players use a hard, black, rubber disk, which is called a
puck. The players skate around the ice, trying to get the puck. They do not use their
hands or their feet to control the puck. Instead, they carry long wooden sticks, which are
shaped in such a way that it is easy to push the puck along the ice. The players can pass
the puck to each other by sliding it across the ice.
To score a goal, a hockey player must shoot the puck into the net of the opposing team,
but this is a difficult task. The net is less than two metres wide, and it is protected by a
player called the goaltender. However, some players can shoot the puck very suddenly
and with great power.
Sometimes, the sport of ice hockey can be quite rough. Players try to take the puck from
their opponents by bumping into them at a high speed. This is called a "body check."
Players are not allowed to hit each other with their sticks. If a player does this, then that
player may be given a penalty by the referee, who enforces the rules of the game.
Naturally, the sport of ice hockey is most popular in countries that have cold winters. The
sport was first played in Canada, but it is also very popular in many countries of Europe,
including Russia, Sweden, Finland, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, and Germany. In
addition, many people play hockey in the United States.
In previous generations, ice hockey was considered a sport for men and boys only.
However, in recent years, women and girls have been playing hockey much more
frequently than in the past. Not only do many girls enjoy playing hockey for fun, but now
women's hockey is officially a sport at the winter Olympics.

Article 9 Chinese People in North America
In recent years, many people have moved to North America from China, but many people
do not know that Chinese people have a long history in Canada and the United States.
During the nineteenth century, both Canada and the United States were rapidly
expanding to the west, toward the Pacific Ocean. In those days, there were of course no
cars or airplanes to allow people and goods to move across the land. Instead, the best
method of long-distance transportation was the railroad. Railway trains could move
quickly across the countryside. However, there was one problem: before the railway
trains could run, railroads had to be built across very long distances.
To build the railroads was a very big job. Many men would be needed because the
distance was so long and the land was so difficult, with many mountains and rivers to be
crossed. For the men who owned the railroad companies, it would have been too
expensive to hire Canadian or American men to build the railroads because those
workers would only work for high wages.
The railroad owners decided to get workers from overseas. Many Chinese men were
willing to work for low wages because they were very poor. These men would work very hard and send much of the money back to their relatives in China.
Thousands of Chinese men were brought to North America to work on the railroads. They
did good work, but their employers treated them badly. The work day was very long, and
working conditions were very unsafe. Many Chinese men died in accidents while
constructing the railroads. Some Chinese women also came to North America, but there
were many more men than women.
After the railroads were completed, by about the year 1900, very few Chinese people
were allowed to come to North America. Most people in Canada and the United States
were not familiar with Chinese people and did not want strangers to come to their
countries. Any Chinese person who came to North America had to pay an expensive tax.
This made it difficult for Chinese men to bring their wives and families to join them in
North America. Later, the governments of Canada and the United States made Chinese
immigration illegal.
Eventually, the people of Canada and the United States realized that their laws had been
unfair. They changed the rules so that Chinese people could immigrate in the same way
that people from other countries could do so. In recent decades, many Chinese people
have moved to North America, and have formed a very lively and successful community.
Many cities, such as Toronto, Vancouver, San Francisco, and New York, have been
enriched by Chinese culture. Chinese people are now very prominent in North America,
just as they were many years ago.

Article 11 African Slavery in the Americas
One of the most tragic parts of the history of North and South America is the period of
African slavery. For hundreds of years, many people were taken from Africa, by force, to
work in the fields of many different countries in North and South America.
When Europeans first came to the Americas, some of them realized that they might make
money by growing crops and selling them in Europe. However, in order to make money,
they would need a cheap source of labor. Few Europeans would come to the Americas to
work for low wages, so instead, the landowners looked for slaves. In the areas of the
great farms, or plantations, there were few Indians, so they used another source of
slaves: Africa.
The plantation owners usually obtained slaves by buying them from local kings in
western Africa. This led to many wars between rival kings within Africa, who tried to
capture each other's people in order to sell them as slaves. A few kings tried to avoid the
slave trade, but this was very difficult.
During a period of several hundred years, from the 1500s to the 1800s, about 12 million
people were taken from western Africa to the Americas. Many more people died as slaves
before leaving Africa, and many more died on the ships that took them to the Americas.
This was because the conditions on the ships were extremely unhealthy: the ships were
far too crowded, and there was little food and water.
When the African slaves arrived in the Americas, the plantation owners made them work
on farms that produced goods such as cotton and sugar. In many places, the work was
very hard, and many of the slaves died from overwork. They were then replaced by other
slaves who arrived from Africa. However, many slaves survived despite the brutal
conditions. In some places, the African slaves were able to revolt against the plantation
owners. However, this was difficult because the slaves who had recently arrived spoke
many different languages. Some slaves escaped into wilderness areas and were able to
remain free from the plantation owners.
As time went by, many people in Europe and in the Americas realized that slavery was
wrong. By the 1830s, slavery had been ended, or abolished, in islands owned by the
British, and in parts of the United States. In the southern United States, slavery was
ended in the 1860s, during the Civil War. In some countries, such as Brazil and Cuba,
slavery only ended in the 1880s.
Today, many millions of people in North and South America are the descendants of slaves who were brought from Africa. The effects of slavery have lasted for many
generations, and there was much racial prejudice against African people even when
slavery ended. However, some have achieved success despite these disadvantages.
Today, the people of African background in North and South America are a very
important part of the population in many countries. 

Article 12 Worries About Physical Appearance
Most people would like to have an attractive physical appearance, but some people
become very worried about the way they look. This can sometimes lead them to do
things that are unhealthy.
For example, many women believe that they must be very thin in order to be attractive.
They see pictures of fashion models who are very thin and then believe that an attractive
woman must look the same way. However, many men prefer the appearance of women
who are not so thin.
In order to become thin, some women try to reduce the amount of food that they eat.
When this is taken to an extreme, a woman might eat far too little food to remain healthy.
Her weight may become dangerously low, as she tries to become thinner and thinner.
This condition is called "anorexia," and it affects many thousands of women in Western
countries.
Anorexia is one of several conditions known as eating disorders. Another eating disorder
is called "bulimia." A woman who has bulimia will sometimes eat large amounts of food,
but then will try to eliminate the food, by vomiting. This is intended to prevent any weight
gain, but it is also a very unhealthy behavior.
Unfortunately, some women are concerned about being very thin, but some women have
different concerns related to the appearance of their body. For example, some women
believe that their breasts are not large enough, and undergo surgery to enlarge their
breasts. In this surgery, some artificial substance is implanted inside the breast to make
it larger. Many women have had this surgery, but many of them have suffered serious
health problems as a result.
In recent years, many men have also become very concerned about their physical
appearance. For example, some men believe that they must become very muscular in
order to have an attractive appearance. To achieve this appearance, some men use drugs
called steroids, which make it possible to gain large amounts of muscle. However,
steroids can have very unhealthy side effects. In addition to drugs, some men have used
surgery to change their physical appearance. For example, some men have had implants
to make their arms, legs, or chest appear larger.
It is unfortunate that so many people feel so unhappy about their physical appearance
and that they do unhealthy things to change the way they look. Of course, everyone
should try to be healthy, but people must also learn to accept their physical appearance.
Many different body types can be attractive, and there is no single ideal body type. There
is no need to use unnatural methods of changing one's body.

 Article 14 The History of Trial By July
In most English-speaking countries, a person who is accused of a crime has the right to
a "trial by jury." In a trial by jury, the guilt or innocence of the accused person is decided
by a group of 12 people, called jurors, who must listen to the evidence about the case.
The idea of trial by jury is over 800 years old, but there was a time when criminal cases
were decided in other ways. Today, many of these methods seem ridiculous and cruel.
Many accused people were forced to undergo a trial by ordeal. There were several
different kinds of this trial. For example, in the ordeal by fire, an accused man was forced
to carry a red-hot piece of iron in his hand. People believed that if the man were innocent
then the gods would protect him, and his hand would not be burned or blistered by the iron.
Another form of the trial by ordeal was the ordeal by combat. If one person accused
another of a crime, they would be forced to fight each other with some weapon. People
believed that the gods would help the man who was right and allow him to win the fight.
Yet another kind of ordeal was the ordeal by water. If a woman was accused of a crime,
such as witchcraft, she might be thrown into a river with rocks attached to her. People
believed that the gods would help an innocent woman and allow her to float on the water.
Gradually, people realized that the trial by ordeal was a completely worthless way to
judge a person's innocence or guilt. They wanted a less barbaric way to decide criminal
cases. During the twelfth century, a new method was introduced by one of the kings of
England, Henry the Second. Henry said that criminal cases should be decided by the
opinions of twelve honest men who knew about the crime, the victim, and the accused
person. This was the beginning of trial by jury in English-speaking countries, and the
method soon became very popular. People trusted this new method much more than
they trusted the old methods.
Later, the system of trial by jury changed somewhat. Instead of having a jury of twelve
men and women who knew about the crime, juries were chosen so that the twelve people
did not know anything about the crime. This change ensures that the jurors do not have
any bias or prejudice about the case. When jurors do not know any of the people
involved in the case, their decisions are more likely to be fair and accurate.
Today, citizens in many countries are called occasionally for jury duty. This can be
inconvenient for people who are busy with their work and family life. However, many men
and women are willing to serve on juries because of a feeling of responsibility to society.
The use of juries in criminal cases helps to ensure that justice is done.

 Article 15 Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin was one of the most famous people in American history. He was never
a President of the United States, but he made great achievements in many areas of life,
including business, literature, science, and politics.
Benjamin Franklin was born in the city of Boston, during the year 1706. In his early years,
Franklin was very poor. As a young man, he worked for his older brother, who was a
printer. However, the two brothers soon argued with each other. Benjamin decided to
leave, and he moved to the city of Philadelphia. He worked very hard and soon became a
successful printer. He published his own newspapers, and he also published books
called almanacs, which contained many wise sayings. Many of the wise sayings in
Franklin's almanacs are still repeated today.
Franklin's printing business was very successful, but he was also very interested in
science. He performed experiments on the topic of electricity. Some of these experiments
were very dangerous. In one experiment, Franklin was almost killed when he went
outside during a lightning storm and flew a kite that had a metal key attached. However,
Franklin was lucky enough to avoid injury, and he learned new facts about electricity.
In addition to scientific research, Franklin was also an inventor. He invented a new kind
of eye-glasses called "bifocals." Bifocals are eye-glasses that allow people to see things
that are far away, but also allow them to read things that are very close. Another
invention was a new kind of stove for burning wood. This new stove was much more
efficient than the older stoves had been. He also invented a lightning rod, which keeps
houses safe from lightning.
Franklin was also interested in making his city a better place to live. He started a public
library, and he helped to organize a hospital and a fire department. In addition, he
supervised the postal service, which operated profitably under his command. In his later
years, Franklin became heavily involved in politics. For most of Franklin's life, the United
States was not yet a country. Instead, the states were still colonies of England, but
Franklin encouraged other Americans to become an independent country. When the
United States became a country, Franklin became the American ambassador to France.
The French people liked Franklin very much. Franklin later returned to the United States,
and he died in 1790.
Today, many Americans still admire the brilliant achievements of Benjamin Franklin, who
did so much to improve people's lives. The picture of Benjamin Franklin can be seen on
the American hundred-dollar bill.

Article 17 Violence on Television
Nowadays, the issue of violence on television is often debated. Many people are
concerned that the images of violent acts might cause the viewers to become more
aggressive. Some of these people believe that there should be restrictions on violent
television programs. Other people feel that individuals should be able to choose what
they want to watch on TV. Many of these people believe that violent television is unlikely
to affect people's behaviour.
One of the concerns that some people have about violent TV is that viewers might imitate
aggressive acts. For example, consider a TV program that shows professional wrestlers.
Some people believe that children who watch the program might copy the actions of the
wrestlers and that this could lead to serious injuries. As another example, consider a TV
program that shows people shooting guns at each other. Some people believe that
viewers of such a program might be more likely to use a gun in their disputes with others.
Another concern that some people have with violent TV is that it might make people less
sensitive to the effects of violence. In other words, people who watch many acts of
violence on television might no longer be shocked by violent acts. They might then
become quite tolerant of the use of violence.
Some people do not believe that violence on television is likely to have harmful effects.
They point out that many terrible acts of violence occurred long before television. They
also argue that people can tell the difference between television and real life. That is,
they say that people are unlikely to imitate violent acts, and are unlikely to become less
sensitive to violence in real life. Also, they argue that parents are able to prevent their
children from watching violent television.
Psychologists have conducted some research studies on the effects of violent television.
Some studies have shown that children who watch a lot of violent TV do become slightly
more aggressive as adults. Other studies have found that people behave somewhat more
aggressively after watching a violent program. This is especially true for people who
have an aggressive personality. Finally, some other research has found that rates of
murder tend to increase slightly in the days following a televised boxing match. Nearly all
psychologists now agree that violence on television does contribute to aggressive
behaviour in everyday life.
The issue of violence on television is difficult because it is a conflict between public
safety and individual freedom. Some people feel that violent TV should be restricted
because it might have harmful effects on society, but other people feel that individuals
should be free to watch the programs that they like.

Article 18 The Inuit
Not many people would want to live in the Arctic areas of northern Canada, Alaska, and
Greenland. In these places, the summers are very short, and the winters are extremely
cold and dark. However, there are some people who have made this land their home for
many generations. These people are called the Inuit. The word "Inuit" means "person" in
the language of the Inuit, which is called Inuktitut.
Before modern times, the Inuit had to survive by hunting. Because their homeland was in
such a cold, northern place, the Inuit could not make a living by farming or by gathering
plants. Many of the animals that the Inuit hunted are mammals that live in the water. For
example, the Inuit used boats to hunt whales. Also, they hunted seals by waiting for the
seals to rise to the surface of the water. Sometimes, the Inuit would hunt land mammals,
such as polar bears.
When eating the meat of the animals they had hunted, the Inuit often ate the meat raw.
This was necessary because only raw meat could provide them with enough nutrients to
survive in a place where fruits and vegetables were not available. In previous times, the
Inuit were known as the "Eskimos," which means "people who eat raw meat." However,
the Inuit did not like this name.
The Inuit invented many useful tools for surviving in the cold, northern areas. They
sewed warm clothing from the furs and skins of the animals they hunted. For
transportation, they used dogs, which could pull them in sleds across the snow. For
making heat and light, they used lamps that burned the fat and oil of whales.
The Inuit were famous for their houses made of snow, which were called igloos. The
igloos were made by cutting blocks of snow and then using these blocks to build a small
round-shaped house. People could enter or exit the igloo through a narrow tunnel.
In recent decades, the Inuit have had much contact with the modern world. Inuit children
now attend schools, and Inuit adults work at a variety of occupations. In some ways, the
Inuit have found it difficult to adjust to the changes from their traditional ways, but the
Inuit are meeting this challenge. In Canada, there is a new territory in the far north, called
Nunavut, where most of the people, including the leaders, are Inuit.
The Inuit are famous for their beautiful artwork. In particular, Inuit carvings or sculptures
are known for their excellent quality. These carvings, which nowadays are made from a
kind of stone called soapstone, depict people or animals such as bears, seals, or whales.
In addition to paintings, Inuit artists have produced beautiful sketches and paintings of
northern scenes.

 Article 20 Alcohol
Alcohol is the oldest drug that is used in Western countries. For thousands of years,
people have made alcoholic beverages. These beverages are made by allowing a process
called fermentation to occur. Alcoholic fermentation happens when yeasts or bacteria
break down the sugars that occur in some liquids, and convert some of those sugars into
alcohol. Many liquids, such as fruit juices, can ferment.
Thousands of years ago, alcoholic drinks were common in the Middle East. However, the
Islamic religion forbids alcohol, so very little alcohol is consumed in this part of the
world. In European countries, and in other parts of the world, many different kinds of
alcoholic beverages are produced and consumed.
In warmer areas of Europe, people make wine by allowing grape juice to ferment. In
cooler areas of Europe, people make beer by fermenting liquids made from water and
various grains. The process of fermentation is also used to make stronger drinks known
as "spirits." These drinks include vodka, whiskey, and rum. The techniques for making
good wine, beer, and spirits have been developed over hundreds of years, and require
scientific precision. Some people have developed a great appreciation for well-made
wine, beer, or spirits, and have become experts about the many different varieties of
these beverages.
Many people appreciate the taste of alcoholic beverages, but many also enjoy the
feelings that alcohol causes. Alcohol belongs to a category of drugs called
"depressants" because it "depresses" the central nervous system, causing a person to
feel less inhibited or restrained. Many people enjoy this feeling, but when a person drinks a lot of alcohol, he or she loses co-ordination, balance, and judgment. Speech may
become unclear, and the person may speak too much. Some people become aggressive
or depressed. When a person is under the influence of alcohol, the person is said to be
drunk.
One of the problems that can result from alcohol consumption is known as "drunk
driving." Some people try to drive a car after having consumed alcohol, but this is
extremely dangerous. Each year, thousands of people are killed by drunk drivers who
lose control of their cars. In recent years, attempts have been made to reduce this
problem, by public education campaigns and by strict laws and punishments. If you drink,
don't drive!
Another problem associated with alcohol is addiction, known as alcoholism. Some
people drink so frequently that they develop a physiological addiction to alcohol. This
problem can have terrible consequences for a person's health, personal relationships,
and career.
Alcoholic beverages are firmly a part of Western culture, and of many other cultures also.
On the one hand, drinks provide many people with much enjoyment and appreciation. On
the other hand, alcohol is a drug that can be abused, leading to accidents and addiction. 

Article 21 The Origins of Canada and The United States
Most people are aware that Canada and the United States are two very large countries in
North America. However, most people do not know how these countries came to exist.
The story of the creation of these countries is a very interesting one.
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, some people from England and from
France moved across the Atlantic ocean. English people lived on what is now the east
coast of the United States, and French people lived in what is now Quebec, in the eastern
part of Canada. The kings of England and France were often at war with each other. This
meant that there was often fighting in North America between the soldiers of England
and France.
By about the year 1750, there were many more people in the English colonies than in the
French colonies. When the next war began, the English king was determined to defeat
the French and gain complete control of North America. The English assembled a large
force of ships and soldiers and attacked the French at Quebec. The French fought
bravely, but they were too few in numbers, and the English won the war. England then
gained control of all of North America.
After this war, the people of the English colonies in North America began to feel
dissatisfied with their government. They were not represented in the English government,
but they had to pay taxes to the English king. The taxes were used to pay for English
soldiers who defended the American colonies, but the Americans did not want these
soldiers.
In 1775, the American settlers began to rebel, and in 1776 the Americans declared their
independence. For several years, there was much fighting between the Americans and
the English soldiers. For a while, it appeared that the Americans would lose, even though
they fought bravely. Then, the king of France decided to help the Americans. He sent his
ships and soldiers to America, and they helped the Americans to defeat the English
forces. England recognized the United States of America as an independent country in
1783. However, England kept control of Canada. When the American colonies rebelled against England, some of the people who lived in
those colonies did not rebel. Those people were called "Loyalists" because they were
loyal to the king. When the war ended, the Loyalists had to leave the country. They
moved northward to Canada, where they started new English-speaking colonies. During
the year 1812, the Americans invaded Canada, but they were not able to conquer the
country.
During the nineteenth century, the people of Quebec continued to speak French and to
maintain their French culture. Meanwhile, many more people moved to the Englishspeaking areas of Canada. In the year 1867, Quebec and the English-speaking colonies
agreed to form a single country, Canada. By this time, there were two very large
countries in the northern part of North America! 

 Article 23 Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin made what might be the most important scientific discovery of all timethe theory of evolution by natural selection. It was Darwin who first understood how it
was that plants and animals evolved over time to produce new and different species. At
first, this theory faced much opposition, but since that time it has been supported by
evidence from many areas of science.
Darwin was born in a small town in England in 1809. When he was a young man, he went
to university, first to study medicine, and later to study religion. However, Darwin found
his schoolwork to be very boring. Instead, he preferred outdoor activities and was very
interested in nature.
While Darwin was at university, the British navy was planning to send one of its ships,
called the Beagle, on a voyage of exploration. As part of this voyage, the ship would need
a naturalist, who could study the various plants and animals that might be found. Darwin
was recommended for this job by one of his professors, who had been impressed by
Darwin.
Darwin was chosen as the naturalist of the Beagle, and the ship left England in 1831. The
ship's voyage took Darwin around the world, and he observed many species of plants
and animals on his trip. In one place near South America, known as the Galapagos
Islands, Darwin observed many unusual species of birds. Several of these birds seemed
closely related to each other, but they differed in interesting ways. For example, some
birds had long beaks that could reach insects hidden in the bark of trees, but other birds
had thick beaks that could break open the shells of nuts.
What Darwin realized was that certain characteristics could help an animal (or a plant) to
survive and reproduce. Individuals that lacked those characteristics would be more likely
to die without reproducing. Over many generations, the useful characteristics would then
become more and more common, as the surviving individuals passed the characteristics
on to their offspring. Eventually, after many generations, the changes would be so great
that a new species would exist. In this way, a single species could divide into two or
more new ones. This was called the "process of evolution by natural selection."
When Darwin returned to England, he studied plants and animals in more detail. After
much research, he began writing a book about his theory of evolution by natural
selection. When the book, The Origin of Species, was published in 1859, it was very
popular and very controversial.
During the next twenty years, Darwin continued his scientific research, and he wrote
several more books. By the time of his death, in 1882, many biologists had realized that
Darwin had made one of the most important scientific discoveries of all time. For the first
time, scientists could understand the origin of the many different species of plants and
animals.

Article 24 Jazz
One of the most popular forms of music is known as jazz. Each year, hundreds of
thousands of people attend jazz concerts and festivals in cities around the world. Jazz
music, both old and new, is played on the radio and on home stereos.
Two of the most important features of jazz music are "improvisation" and "syncopation."
Improvisation means that music is created spontaneously by the musician during a
performance. In other words, the musician modifies some existing music in a new and
interesting way. Syncopation means that the regular patterns found in music may be
broken up, with new accents and uneven patterns being created. The features of
improvisation and syncopation are difficult to use with skill, and require great creativity
on the part of the musician.
Jazz music originated in the southern United States, during the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries. It was based on African-American music that was derived in part
from rhythms in western Africa. The earliest jazz musicians were influenced by a music
style known as "ragtime," which was popular during the late nineteenth century. Jazz
music also incorporated some aspects of a related kind of music called the "blues."
By the beginning of the twentieth century, a fully developed form of jazz was being
played in New Orleans, a city in the southern United States. Jazz musicians played
instruments such as the trumpet, saxophone, cornet, and piano. Jazz soon became
popular and was played on the riverboats that travelled along the Mississippi River.
Some jazz musicians moved north to the city of Chicago, and young musicians in that
city developed some new forms of jazz music.
By the 1920s and 1930s, jazz was popular in many parts of the United States, and some
musicians began forming large bands, comprising many musicians and many different
instruments. This began the period known as the "big band" era when a popular form of
jazz known as "swing" music was played. During the 1940s and 1950s, other forms of
jazz, known as "bop" and "cool" jazz, were developed. Some people preferred these
newer kinds of jazz, but others preferred the older varieties.
By the 1960s, some jazz musicians began to experiment with different kinds of musical
instruments and with other kinds of music. Some musicians incorporated musical styles
from other parts of the world, or combined jazz with rock music, and today some
musicians have blended jazz with rap music. However, some people prefer the more
traditional forms of jazz music.
Of course, most of the great jazz musicians of the early twentieth century-people such as
Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Count Basie, Dizzy Gillespie, and Billie Holliday-are no
longer alive. However, many great jazz musicians are still active, and many younger
musicians have continued this form of music. People will continue to enjoy jazz music
for a long time to come.

Article 26 Australia : People
The first people who lived in Australia were known as the Aborigines. The Aborigines
came to Australia by boat more than 40,000 years ago. They are the first people in the
world who are known to have used boats for transportation.
Even though many parts of Australia were very inhospitable places, the Aborigines
survived. They lived by hunting and gathering throughout the continent, even in the
desert areas where survival is almost impossible. The Aborigines felt a deep spiritual
attachment to the land, and they made many beautiful paintings upon the rocks of many
parts of the country. Their most famous invention is a curved hunting stick known as the
"boomerang." The design of the boomerang is remarkable, because it can be thrown in
such a way that it will turn around and return to the person who threw it.
Until about two hundred years ago, the Aborigines had only a very limited amount of
contact with people in the outside world. The next people to migrate to Australia were
from the British Isles. Beginning in the late eighteenth century, Australia was used as a
prison colony, where common criminals and political prisoners were sent from Britain.
By the middle of the nineteenth century, many British people moved to Australia
voluntarily to begin farms or to search for gold. By the late nineteenth century, Britain
stopped sending its prisoners to Australia, but migration continued.
After the arrival of the British colonists, the Aboriginal population declined sharply. This
was partly due to disease, partly due to cruel treatment by settlers, and partly due to the
loss of their traditional way of life. Today, the Aboriginal population is growing again, and
the Australian government has taken some steps to correct the injustices of the past.
The various parts of Australia were governed at first as separate colonies, but in 1901
they joined to form a single country. Australia continued to grow during the twentieth
century, and after World War Two it attracted many immigrants from countries in Europe.
During the past few decades, many people have moved to Australia from various parts of
Asia and from other parts of the world.
Today, Australia consists of one territory (the Northern Territory) and six states (Western
Australia, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland).
Tasmania is a small island off the southern coast, and Victoria, New South Wales, and
Queensland are found in the eastern part of the country.
The two largest cities in Australia are Sydney and Melbourne, both of which are in the
southeastern part of the country. Sydney has a beautiful harbor that is one of the largest
in the world, and Melbourne has many beautiful parks and gardens. The capital city of the
country is Canberra, which is located between Sydney and Melbourne. Other large cities
in Australia are Brisbane (in the northeast), Perth (in the southwest), and Adelaide (in the
south).

 Article 27 The Earth Revolves Around the Sun
One year is the time required for the earth to travel around the sun. For most of history,
however, people did not know that the earth moved around the sun. Instead, people
believed that the sun moved around the earth.
The old idea that the sun moved around the earth is known as the "geocentric" theory.
This idea was first made famous by an ancient Greek scientist, Ptolemy, who lived in
Egypt nearly 2000 years ago. Some other Greek philosophers had suggested instead that
the earth might travel around the sun. However, this idea, which is known as the
"heliocentric" theory, was not widely accepted. For centuries, people in Europe did not
seriously question Ptolemy's geocentric theory.
During the early fifteenth century, however, a Polish astronomer named Nicolaus
Copernicus began to think that the heliocentric idea was right, and that the geocentric
idea was wrong. Shortly before his death, Copernicus wrote a book that described the
mathematical details of his theory that the earth revolved, or travelled, around the sun.
Later astronomers came to agree with Copernicus's view. One of the most famous of
these was Galileo, an Italian scientist. Galileo was famous for demonstrating that light
and heavy objects fall at exactly the same speed, unless an object is so light that it is
slowed by the air. Galileo was also the first astronomer to use a powerful telescope to
observe the sky. He discovered many unknown features of the moon, the sun, and the
planets.
When Galileo announced that he believed in Copernicus's theory that the earth revolved
around the sun, some officials of the Roman Catholic Church were angry. They argued
that this theory was against the beliefs of the Church. Some church officials disagreed
with this view, but the authorities decided that Galileo should be punished by "house
arrest." (In other words, Galileo was not allowed to leave his house.) Also, Galileo was
forced to make a public statement that renounced his belief in the heliocentric theory.
At about the same time that Galileo supported the heliocentric idea, another astronomer
did some important work that supported Copernicus's view. This astronomer was
Johannes Kepler, who lived in Germany. Kepler used the observations of previous
scientists to figure out the motion of the planets around the sun. He realized that the
planets did not travel in circular paths, but instead in paths that were elliptical, or oval, in
shape. Kepler's discoveries showed mathematically how the planets would revolve
around the sun.
Today, everyone knows that the earth moves around the sun; but for a long time, it
seemed more reasonable to believe that the sun moved around the earth. We can thank
the great scientists of the past who discovered the surprising truth.

Article 29 The Rights of the Accused
In English-speaking countries, the rights of an accused person are taken very seriously.
Over many centuries, laws evolved in such a way that people could not be arrested or
charged without a very good reason.
Of course, every country needs to enforce its laws. This means that police officers are
needed, and so are "prosecutors"-the lawyers whose job is to make criminal charges
against people who break the laws, and to prove that those charges are true. However, it
is very important that people's freedoms are not taken away wrongly. People should not
be punished unfairly, and people who are accused of crimes must have the opportunity
to defend themselves.
In some parts of the world, people can be arrested and imprisoned for long periods of
time, without any criminal charges being made against them. One of the most important
principles of justice in English-speaking countries is that a person cannot be held by the
police unless that person is charged with a crime. This principle is known by the Latin
term, "habeas corpus." According to the idea of habeas corpus, the police are not
allowed to detain a person for more than a certain period of time (usually, twenty-four
hours), unless some charge is made against the person. A judge will order the release of
a person who is not charged with a crime.
Another important feature of justice systems in most English-speaking countries is that
accused individuals have the right to be represented by a lawyer. Most accused people
want to hire an expert lawyer. However, even if a person cannot afford to hire a lawyer,
the criminal court must provide a lawyer who will represent that person. The lawyer for
an accused person is required to defend that person as thoroughly as possible.
One of the most important aspects of justice systems in the United States and the British
Commonwealth is that an accused person must be fully informed of any charges made
against them. Also, any evidence that will be used to show the accused person's guilt
must be shared with the accused person and with that person's lawyer. In this way,
accused persons can challenge the truth of any evidence that will be used against them.
Similarly, any person who acts as a witness against an accused person can be crossexamined by the accused person's lawyer. This means that the statements of a witness
can be challenged by the accused person.
Another important element of most English-speaking justice systems is that evidence
must be obtained fairly. Police officers cannot simply enter a person's home to look for
evidence of a crime. They must first have a good reason to believe that a crime has been
committed, and they must obtain permission from a judge to enter the person's property.
This permission is called a "search warrant." Because search warrants are required,
people are free from arbitrary invasions of their property by the police.
Finally, another important aspect of most English-speaking justice systems is that trials
must be held in public, where other citizens can watch the trial. An accused person is not
tried secretly. Moreover, as discussed in another passage, the accused person has the
right to be tried by a jury of other free citizens. All of these rules ensure that order can be maintained without taking away the freedom of innocent people. 

Article 30 New York City
New York City is the largest city in the United States, and one of the largest cities in the
world. The city of New York has a population of over seven million people, and the
surrounding urban areas bring the total to about twenty million people. However, New
York City is not merely a very large city; it is also known as one of the world's leading
centers of financial, artistic, and media activities.
Compared with most of the great cities of the world, New York is very young. The first
permanent settlements were established during the seventeenth century, by settlers from
the Netherlands. Those people named their town "New Amsterdam." Soon, the colony
was taken over by English settlers, who re-named the city "New York." New York grew
quickly, and by the nineteenth century it was the largest city of the United States.
New York was usually the place where new immigrants to the United States would arrive.
In the nineteenth century, immigrants from Germany and Ireland were numerous in New
York. In the early twentieth century, New York City was the home of many Jewish
immigrants, and also immigrants from Italy. In addition, many African-American people
arrived in New York from other parts of the United States, and many persons came to
New York from the American territory of Puerto Rico, a Spanish-speaking island in the
Caribbean. In more recent decades, immigrants have arrived in New York from places all
over the world.
One of the most famous features of New York City is its dramatic skyline. New York has
more tall buildings, called "skyscrapers," than any other city in the world. Many of the
tallest and most interesting buildings in New York-including the Woolworth Building, the
Chrysler Building, and the Empire State Building-were constructed during the early
decades of the twentieth century. In addition to these impressive buildings, New York is
also known for the huge bridges that join the island of Manhattan to the surrounding
areas. The Brooklyn Bridge is the most famous of these remarkable and old bridges.
Of course, New York is famous for much more than just its architecture. New York City's
financial district, Wall Street, and its theatre district, centered on Broadway, are the most
important in the United States. Central Park is one of the world's great urban parks, and
the art galleries, museums, and concert halls are among the greatest to be found
anywhere. The United Nations has its headquarters in New York City. People around the
world recognize the famous Statue of Liberty, which stands on an island in the harbor of
New York, and the bustling Times Square, located in the mid-town Manhattan area.
Visitors to New York find it to be an extremely busy, fast-placed city and are struck by the
extremes of wealth and poverty that surround it. Many people love New York City, but
even those who would not want to live in New York do agree that it is a very interesting
place.

Article 32 Drug Use Among Athletes
Drug use is a common problem in many sports competitions today. In both professional
and amateur sports, many athletes use drugs that are designed to improve athletic
performance. The use of these drugs may have harmful effects on the future health of
athletes, but they also give an unfair advantage in athletic competitions.
Some of the most widely-used performance-enhancing drugs are called "anabolic
steroids." Anabolic steroids are drugs that are very similar to the male hormone,
testosterone. These drugs allow athletes to develop larger and stronger muscles, and to
increase the intensity of training. For sports that require strength, power, or speed, the
use of steroids can provide advantages. In past years, many famous sprinters and
weightlifters have been found to have used steroids.
However, anabolic steroids have many negative side effects. To give just a few examples,
steroids can cause changes in mood, including irritability and anger, and can also cause
skin problems such as acne. In men, steroid use can lead to reduction in the functioning
of the testicles. In women, steroid use can interfere with menstruation. In both men and
women, long-term side effects include an increased risk of some forms of cancer.
Another widely-used drug is known as EPO. EPO is a hormone that helps to produce red
blood cells, which carry oxygen to the muscles. When taken by athletes who compete in
sports that require great endurance, EPO may provide an advantage by allowing the
athletes to maintain their speed for a longer time and distance. During 1998, there was a
scandal at a famous bicycle race, the Tour de France, when it was found that many of
these long-distance cyclists were using EPO to gain an advantage over their competitors.
EPO has side effects. For example, it increases the likelihood of developing blood clots,
which increase the risk of a stroke or heart attack.
One difficulty in preventing the use of performance-enhancing drugs is that it is not
always possible to detect the use of the drugs. Tests have been developed to detect the
drugs, but new varieties of the drugs are often not detected. Also, athletes who stop
using the drugs well before a drug test may avoid being detected.
Preventing the use of performance-enhancing drugs in athletes is difficult, but it is
important. Most athletes want to compete without using artificial substances that provide
easy advantages, and they do not want to risk their health by using these substances. If
those athletes are to have a fair chance, it is necessary to prevent other athletes from
gaining advantages due to the use of these drugs.

Article 33 Scotland
Scotland is the country that is located on the northern part of the island of Great Britain.
The Scottish people are one of the four main nationalities of the British Isles, together
with the English, the Welsh, and the Irish. Scotland and its people have played an
important part in the history of the English-speaking world.
Scotland can be roughly divided into two main regions. The lowland areas, in the
southern part of Scotland, contain most of the population and the two main cities,
Edinburgh and Glasgow. Most of Scotland's agriculture and industry are located in the
lowland areas. The Highland areas, together with the islands that lie off the coast of
Scotland, are not so heavily populated. The lakes and mountains of the highlands are
known for their beautiful scenery.
One of the main themes of Scottish history is conflict with England. During the Middle
Ages, the English and Scottish kings were often at war. Around the year 1300, the Scots
repelled some invasions from England. During the 1600s, though, Scotland and England
had the same king, and the countries were officially joined as "the United Kingdom" in
1701.
For people in the highlands of Scotland, the eighteenth century was very difficult. Most
people worked as farmers on land that was owned by a few wealthy landlords. The
landlords decided that they could make more money on the land if they evicted the
farmers, so many of the farmers were forced to leave. The highlanders rebelled against
the King in 1745, but they were defeated. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
many people left the highlands of Scotland. They moved to the United States, Canada,
Australia, and New Zealand. During the nineteenth century, Scotland was the first
country to have universal public education for children. The country produced a great
number of famous scientists and inventors during that time. Scotland is famous for its national costume. This costume includes the "kilt," which is a
knee-length skirt worn by both men and women. The kilt is made from a fabric that
contains stripes of different colors and widths, which cross over each other to produce a
pattern that is called a "tartan." In the Scottish highlands, groups of related families,
called "clans," have their own unique tartan.
Another famous part of Scottish heritage is the musical instrument known as the
bagpipes. The bagpipes have a distinctive sound that is easily recognized. Bagpipes
were originally played to intimidate enemies in battle, but today Scottish people play the
bagpipes at parades and other celebrations. People of Scottish heritage around the world
celebrate their heritage on January 25th of each year. This day celebrates the birthday of
Robbie Burns, the famous Scottish poet. People celebrate this day at parties, where
people eat a famous Scottish food called haggis.
Today, Scotland remains part of the United Kingdom, but some Scottish people would
like Scotland to become independent. Whatever the Scottish people decide, their country
will remain a unique and interesting place. 

Article 35 Soccer
Soccer is the most popular sport in the world. The basic rules of the sport are simple:
two teams of eleven players try to kick the soccer ball into the opposing team's goal.
Only one player on each team, the goal-keeper, is allowed to touch the ball with hands or
arms. Perhaps part of the reason for the popularity of soccer is its simplicity. The game
requires no expensive equipment, merely a ball and a playing surface, preferably a large
grassy area. For children in most parts of the world, soccer is the sport that is played
most widely.
Soccer is also known as football, especially in England. However, soccer should not be
confused with American Football, Australian Rules Football, and Rugby Football, which
are very different sports.
Although the basic rules of soccer are easy to learn, it is very difficult to master the skills
of the game. The best soccer players have developed, through natural talent and hard
work, a remarkable ability to control the soccer ball with their feet, knees, torso, and
head. They can pass the ball very accurately, or shoot the ball very hard.
The most famous soccer tournament is the World Cup. Every four years, teams
representing countries from around the world play in a tournament to decide which
country has the best soccer team in the world.
Because soccer is such a popular sport, it is not possible for every country in the world
to be represented at the World Cup tournament. To decide which countries may
participate in the World Cup, it is necessary to have tournaments within various regions
of the world. The countries that perform well within their parts of the world can then
proceed to the World Cup. In the past, most of the available places at the World Cup have
been reserved for teams from Europe and from South America. The reason for this is that
soccer has been extremely popular in these continents, which have produced the
winning teams in previous World Cup tournaments.
Recently, however, several African and Asian countries have played quite well at the
World Cup, so there are now additional places provided for teams from Africa and Asia.
Someday, teams from these areas will win the World Cup. However, there will no doubt
be strong competition from countries that have traditionally had very strong teams, such
as Argentina, England, Brazil, France, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands.
In many parts of the world, soccer has been an increasingly popular sport for women.
There are now many soccer leagues and tournaments available for women athletes, and
it seems likely that the number of women who play soccer will someday equal the
number of men who play soccer. Among children in many parts of the world, soccer is
equally popular for boys and girls.

Article 36 Extinctions
Ever since human beings appeared on the Earth, we have had a serious impact on other
living things. One of the most serious results of the human presence has been the
extinction of other species. Since the arrival of humans, many species of animals and
plants have died out as a result of human activity.
The extinction of species is a serious problem. When certain species are eliminated, this
may disrupt the balance of nature, leading to overpopulation of some species and
extinction of others. These changes may have an impact on humans. Also, some of the
species that become extinct might have had benefits for human beings. For example,
scientists believe that some of the plants growing in rain forest areas might be valuable
for treating human diseases. If these plants become extinct as a result of human activity,
then these treatments will never be found.
The earliest extinctions caused by humans occurred very long ago. Modern humans
emerged in Africa over 100,000 years ago, and some of those people migrated to other
parts of the world. When they reached new areas, they found that it was very easy to hunt
the large animals, which had not previously been hunted by humans. As these
prehistoric people moved into Europe, Australia, and the Americas, they killed large
numbers of large animals. Within a few hundred years, many species of animals had
become extinct. For example, prehistoric people reached New Zealand less than 1000
years ago, but they soon hunted a huge bird, called the giant moa, to extinction.
With the beginnings of modern technology, several hundred years ago, many other
species were driven to extinction. Hunters armed with guns were able to kill vast
numbers of animals. In North America, this led to the extinction of bird species such as
the passenger pigeon, which had previously been very numerous. Other species were
nearly wiped out, such as the large prairie mammals called bison. There were once
millions of these animals, but now only a few thousand remain.
Today, many more species of animals and plants are going extinct. Sometimes this
happens because of human expansion into areas that are the habitat of certain species.
When people clear a forest, some species may be lost.
In the near future, many other extinctions are possible or likely. In some cases, the
problem is due to human greed. For example, some people buy ivory that is taken from
the bodies of animals such as elephants or rhinoceros. Hunters sometimes kill these
animals simply to take their ivory, and the result is a tragic decline in populations.
Another example involves bears in North America. Some people buy the sexual organs of
these animals for use as aphrodisiacs, or sexual stimulants. The result is that hunters kill
bears simply to obtain these organs, and this leads to a reduction in the number of bears.
Fortunately, many countries have laws to prevent the hunting of species that are facing
extinction, known as "endangered species." However, some hunting of these endangered
animals continues. Only by refusing to buy the products that are made from endangered
species can we prevent this terrible crime.

 Article 38 Sexual Harassment
When an employee is subjected to unwanted sexual advances or comments by a coworker or an employer, we say that the employee is experiencing sexual harassment. In
some workplaces, sexual harassment is a serious problem.
In its most blatant form, a boss may demand sexual favours from an employee and
threaten to fire the employee if she fails to comply. Similarly, the employer might promise
a promotion or raise in exchange for some sexual favor. Whenever an employer uses the
prospect of reward or punishment as a way of obtaining sexual access to an employee,
sexual harassment has occurred.
This is not the only form of sexual harassment. Sometimes, an employee may be
subjected to demeaning comments by her employer or co-worker. For example, a boss
might make vulgar comments about the physical appearance of the employee. Another
example is that a co-worker might make remarks that speculate about the sexual
behaviour of the employee. In both of these cases, the employee is treated
disrespectfully on the basis of her sex, so both cases would represent sexual
harassment.
Some forms of sexual harassment are more subtle. If a group of workers exchanges
offensive jokes of a sexual nature, in such a way that they can be easily overheard by
other workers, then this is also a form of sexual harassment. Similarly, if workers post
pornographic pictures in their workplace, in such a way that they can be seen by other
workers, then this also represents sexual harassment. In both cases, the workplace
becomes an environment in which the employee is made to feel uncomfortable because
of her sex.
Sexual harassment usually involves a female employee who is being bothered by a male
employer or co-worker. In some cases, a woman might sexually harass a man, or one
person might sexually harass another person of the same sex. However, these cases are
not as common. Also, in some cases, the person who commits sexual harassment is not
a boss or co-worker, but a customer or a visitor to the workplace.
Sexual harassment is a form of intimidation and abuse of power that causes much stress
for many employees. In recent years, many steps have been taken to reduce the
occurrence of sexual harassment. Educational campaigns have been designed to teach
people that sexual harassment is wrong. Stronger penalties for sexual harassment have
been introduced.
Another way to reduce the prevalence of sexual harassment is to develop a culture of
respect in the workplace. People need to be aware of how their jokes or comments might
be perceived by others, and to imagine how they would feel if one of their relatives were
subjected to sexual harassment. Employers and employees must recognize that sexual
harassment is a serious concern and treat potential cases of sexual harassment very
seriously. Each company should have clear policies about sexual harassment, and each
should establish a fair and efficient process for dealing with complaints of this kind. In
this way, the workplace can be a comfortable environment for all persons.

Article 39 Cultural Differences : Individualism and Collectivism
The many cultures of the world differ in a great variety of ways. One of the most
interesting ways in which cultures vary is in the extent to which they are "individualistic"
or "collectivistic." An individualist society and a collectivist society are different in many
ways.
In an individualistic culture, each person tends to think of himself or herself in terms of
his or her own characteristics and preferences-the things that make the person unique or
different from others. In a collectivistic culture, each person tends to think of himself or
herself in terms of his or her social relationships and roles-the things that make the
person a part of a larger group, such as an extended family or an ethnic group.
Another difference between individualist and collectivist cultures involves the tendency
to help others. In an individualist society, people feel some obligation to help persons
who share some group identity-such as their distant relatives, or persons from the same
town-but this obligation is not nearly as strong as in collectivist cultures. On the other
hand, people in collectivist cultures tend to feel very little inclination to help other people
who do not belong to their groups, whereas people in individualist cultures are more
often willing to help others even if they do not belong to the same group.
Another difference between individualist and collectivist cultures involves the
relationship between people and the groups to which they belong. In an individualist
culture, people usually join or leave groups when it is in their personal interest to do so.
In a collectivist culture, people usually stay with one group for a long time. For example, people in individualist societies are more willing to quit their job, and take a new job at
another company. People in collectivist societies usually prefer to stay with one company
throughout their career. Similarly, people in individualist countries usually get married
for reasons of personal choice, and are more likely to get divorced. However, people in
collectivist societies usually get married according to the wishes of their relatives, and
are less likely to get divorced.
Western countries, such as those of western Europe and North America, are usually
considered to be very individualist. However, not all individualist countries are similar in
every way. For example, the individualism of the United States is viewed as more
"competitive" than that of socialist countries, such as Sweden. In contrast to Western
countries, the countries of most parts of Asia and Africa are usually considered to be
very collectivist. Collectivist countries also differ from each other in many ways.
The idea of individualism versus collectivism is an interesting way to understand some
of the differences between cultures. By learning about ideas like this, one can better
appreciate the customs of other peoples.

Article 41 Modern Engineering Wonders
During the twentieth century, there were great improvements in engineering technology.
These new developments allowed the construction of many amazing tunnels, bridges,
towers, and office buildings.
For centuries, people had dreamed about the possibility of connecting the island of Great
Britain to the mainland of Europe. However, it was only in 1994 that such a link was
completed, when a tunnel was dug under the English Channel, between England and
France. The Channel Tunnel, also known as the "Chunnel," actually consists of three
separate railway tunnels. These tunnels are about 50 kilometres long. They are located
about 150 metres below the bottom of the sea. Obviously, this was an extremely
challenging project to undertake. As a result of the Chunnel, it is now possible to travel
between London and Paris by train. And the trip takes only three hours, of which only 20
minutes are spent inside the tunnel!
A suspension bridge is a bridge that is supported by strong wires that hang from tall
towers. The world's longest suspension bridge is the Akashi-Kaikyo bridge, near the city
of Kobe, Japan. This bridge is nearly 4 kilometres long, and the two towers near the
middle of the bridge are about 2 kilometres apart! It took almost 20 years to design this
bridge, and 10 years to build it. This bridge was designed to withstand extremely strong
winds, because Japan often experiences wind storms called typhoons. The bridge was
also designed to withstand powerful earthquakes, which sometimes hit Japan.
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the world's tallest free-standing tower was
the Canadian National Tower, or the CN Tower. The CN tower is 553 metres tall. It is
located in the city of Toronto, within the Canadian province of Ontario. This structure was
built in 1975 as a television and radio tower. Before the CN tower was built, TV and radio
reception in the Toronto area was poor. This was because the TV and radio signals were
blocked by the buildings of downtown Toronto. When the CN tower was built, this
problem was solved. Of course, the CN tower is also a famous tourist attraction. People
can ride in the very fast elevators that take them to observation areas, which are at about
350 and 450 metres above the ground.
Although the CN Tower is the world's tallest tower, it is not an office building. The tallest
buildings in the world are the Petronas Towers, in the city of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,
and the Sears Tower, in the American city of Chicago. The Sears Tower, which is 442
metres tall, was completed in 1974. It has 110 floors, and its top floor is the highest office
floor in the world. However, the Petronas Towers reach slightly higher, to a height of 452
metres. The Petronas Towers were completed in 1998.
Obviously, the late twentieth century witnessed some amazing achievements of
engineering. It will be very interesting to see what new wonders will be constructed in the
twenty-first century!

Article 42 Anne Sullivan and Helen Keller
The story of Anne Sullivan and Helen Keller is the story of a dedicated teacher and an
eager student. This story is very remarkable and inspiring because the teaching was
done without sight and without sound.
Helen Keller was born in the American state of Alabama in 1880. She was a happy and
healthy baby, but before she reached the age of two, she was struck by a severe fever. As
a result of this fever, she became both deaf and blind.
After her illness, the young Helen Keller learned to use her other senses. For example,
she touched other people's hands to figure out what they were doing. In this way, she
also learned that people could communicate by moving their lips. Helen could not talk;
instead, she communicated with her family by making sign movements with her hands
and body. However, Helen became very frustrated by her inability to see, hear, and talk.
She often became very angry and had many "temper tantrums."
When Helen Keller was six years old, her family took her to see Dr. Alexander Graham
Bell, who was an expert on educating deaf children. (This man was also famous for
inventing the telephone.) As a result of this visit, Helen's parents hired a tutor for their
daughter. The tutor was a very intelligent deaf woman named Anne Sullivan.
At first, it was difficult to teach Helen because she still made many angry outbursts.
Gradually, Anne Sullivan gained Helen's trust. One day, Anne began to teach Helen to
communicate. Anne took Helen to a well and pumped some water onto Helen's hand.
Then, Anne used her finger to write the letters w-a-t-e-r onto Helen's hand. By repeating
this, Anne was able to teach Helen how to write the word "water."
As soon as Helen learned that things could be named in this way, she wanted to learn the
names of many other objects and actions. She was curious about many things, and
learned a great number of words. She also learned to read by using the Braille alphabet.
This alphabet allows the reader to feel letters and words, which are represented by
bumps on a page. Also, Helen learned to talk, by feeling and then copying the
movements of people's mouths.
When Helen Keller was 16 years old, Anne Sullivan went with her to college. Anne acted
as Helen's interpreter, and Helen was very successful in her studies. After her graduation,
Helen dedicated her life to improving conditions for the blind, the deaf, and the poor.
Anne Sullivan died in 1936 and was remembered as the "Miracle Worker" for her triumph
in educating Helen Keller.
After Anne's death, Helen continued to give lectures in countries around the world, and
was active in many political causes. She met with presidents and prime ministers, and
helped to improve conditions for people who were deaf or blind. At the time of her death,
in 1968, Helen Keller was one of the most admired people in the world.

Article 44 Sexual Attitude and Behavior
During the past several decades, there have been major changes within most Western
countries in people's attitudes toward sex, and in sexual behaviour. For people who have
lived throughout this period, the changes have seemed quite remarkable.
Until the early twentieth century, people in most Western countries did not have
permissive attitudes regarding sexuality. For the most part, young people were expected
to wait until marriage before having sexual intercourse. Of course, some premarital sex
did occur, and prostitution was not rare. However, sexual behaviour was relatively
restricted.
As the twentieth century progressed, there was a gradual trend toward liberalization of
attitudes toward sex. However, this trend was greatly speeded after 1960, when the first
birth control pills became available. These contraceptive pills made it possible for women to engage in sexual intercourse without much risk of an unwanted pregnancy. As
a result, many women were more willing to have premarital sex than was previously the
case.
Also during the 1960s, Western countries were reaching high levels of wealth and
education. A new and very large generation of young people was approaching adulthood,
and there was a mood of rebellion against traditional norms. There was an increase in
the number of people who engaged in sex before marriage, and also a greater openness
about such behaviour.
By the 1970s, sexual attitudes had become quite liberal, and many young people were
quite promiscuous in their sexual behaviour. However, this pattern reversed somewhat
during the 1980s. There was increased concern about sexually transmitted diseases,
including AIDS; moreover, many young women had been uncomfortable with the idea of
unrestricted sexual behaviour. As a result, sexual attitudes became slightly more
conservative during the 1980s and 1990s, although they remained much more liberal
than in previous decades.
In the early twenty-first century, most young people in Western countries begin having
sex during their high school years, although some people wait until they are
considerably older. Some young people are promiscuous, but most engage in
monogamous relationships that typically last for a period of several months or a few
years. When one relationship ends, another usually begins soon after. This pattern
usually continues until marriage. After marriage, most people have sex exclusively with
their spouse; however, some people do commit adultery.
Sexuality has changed a great deal in recent decades. It will be very interesting to see
how people's sexual attitudes and behaviour will change in the future.

Article 45 The Mississippi River
The Mississippi River is the longest river within the United States, and the fourth longest
river in the world. This river holds a special place in American history and literature, and
in the imagination of ordinary Americans.
The Mississippi River begins in the hills of northern Minnesota, near the Canadian border,
and flows southward about 3700 kilometres, through ten states, before draining its water
and silt into the Gulf of Mexico. Traditionally, the river is viewed as a natural boundary
between the eastern and western halves of the United States.
Until the year 1803, the areas to the west of the Mississippi River, and the areas around
the mouth of the river, were claimed by Spain and by France. In that year, the French
emperor, Napoleon, decided to sell this land to the United States of America. This sale,
which is called the Louisiana Purchase, was very important for the United States. By
controlling the Mississippi River, the Americans would be able to use it for transporting
goods and people in this rapidly developing area.
For many years, river-boats were the main method of long-distance transportation for
people living near the Mississippi. Steam-powered boats, with large "paddle wheels" that
pushed the boat forward, were very popular in the time before cars and airplanes.
One of the famous cities along the Mississippi River is St. Louis. This city is known as
the "gateway to the west." During the nineteenth century, St. Louis was the last large
town that people would pass through on their way to new farmland farther west. Today,
St. Louis is famous for the "Gateway Arch," a tall monument that welcomes people to the
west. St. Louis is also known as the city where the music known as "the Blues" began.
Near the mouth of the Mississippi River is another famous city, New Orleans. In terms of
the style of buildings, New Orleans is said to be the most unusual American city, because
it is influenced so strongly by Spanish and French traditions. Even today, the traditional
festival of "Mardi Gras" is celebrated in New Orleans each year. New Orleans and the
surrounding areas of the state of Louisiana are famous for spicy "Cajun" food. This style
of cooking was developed by the French-speaking settlers of Louisiana.
The Mississippi River is famous in many stories of American literature. For example, The
Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn, which were written by the author Mark
Twain, are both set along the Mississippi River.
Today, the federal and state governments of the United States are working to preserve
the natural environment along the Mississippi River. People recognize the importance of
keeping this river healthy and clean.

 Article 47 Chicago
Chicago is one of the most famous American cities. Some cities in the United Statessuch as New York, Los Angeles, and San Francisco-may be more glamorous, but many
people agree that Chicago is the city that best represents the United States.
Located in the middle of North America, Chicago has derived much benefit from its
geography. The city's central location has made its O'Hare International Airport the "hub"
for most airlines in the United States. Its location on the shores of Lake Michigan has
made it a major port and business centre, where the agricultural and industrial products
of the American Midwest are shipped overseas.
Until about the 1830s, Chicago was a minor trading post. But then it grew rapidly as the
most important town in the rapidly developing areas of the midwestern United States. In
1871, the city was destroyed by a fire. It is often said that the fire started when a cow
knocked over an oil lamp. It took about 20 years for the city to be completely rebuilt, but
it continued to expand. In 1882, the first skyscraper was built in Chicago.
Around the turn of the century, the population of Chicago was growing quickly. Many
African-American people moved to Chicago from the southern United States, and many
immigrants from Eastern Europe also arrived in Chicago during this time. Because of the
busy and active atmosphere of the city, an American poet described Chicago as "the city
of broad shoulders."
Chicago became notorious for organized crime during the Prohibition Era of the 1920s,
when the sale of alcohol was illegal. Mobsters such as Al Capone became rich by
smuggling liquor, and many people were killed in conflicts between rival gangs of
criminals. But the influence of organized crime later became weaker.
In the decades following World War Two, Chicago experienced some problems with
crime, poverty, and racial conflict. However, the city has recently prospered, and social
conditions have improved for many people in Chicago. Compared with other large cities,
Chicago is viewed as an affordable place to live, with a high quality of life. The city has
efficient transportation, and many beautiful parks along the Lake Michigan shoreline.
Chicago is famous for its many attractions, including the Art Institute of Chicago, the
Field Museum of Natural History, the Shedd Aquarium, the Sears Tower, and the "Miracle
Mile" shopping district. Indeed, Chicago is one of the most interesting cities in the United
States.

Article 48 Women and the Right to Vote
In most countries today, people think it is obvious that all adults should have the right to
vote in democratic elections. But it was not so long ago that women did not have this
right. Only after a long struggle did women gain the right to vote.
By the early nineteenth century, modern democratic forms of government were
appearing in the United States, Great Britain, and some European countries. In these
countries, most adult men had the right to vote in democratic elections. Some men were
denied this right if they were poor or if they belonged to a racial minority group, but
gradually this right was extended to all men.
It took much longer for women to gain the right to vote. Only in special cases, such as
that of a widow who owned land, could a woman be allowed to vote. Many men believed
that it was not necessary for women to vote, because they assumed that the husband
should decide on behalf of his wife. Some men believed that women did not possess the
intelligence or the discipline to vote carefully. Some women also believed that women
should not be involved in politics, but many others wanted the right to vote.
By about the year 1850, some women began to organize in an effort to change the laws
regarding women and the vote. This movement was known as the "woman suffrage"
movement, because the word "suffrage" means voting. Leaders such as Susan B.
Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton brought attention to this issue, and persuaded
many people that women should vote.
The first part of the United States to recognize women's right to vote was Wyoming, in
the year 1869. During the following decades, many other states recognized women's right
to vote, particularly in the western part of the country, where women had a high social
status. However, the United States was not the first country to recognize women's right
to vote at the national level.
The first country to recognize women's right to vote was New Zealand, in 1893. Soon
after, Australia also allowed women to vote, and so did the Scandinavian countries of
northern Europe. But in countries such as the United States, Canada, and Great Britain,
women could not yet vote. Women in those countries struggled to gain the vote. For
example, in Great Britain, Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters participated in hunger
strikes.
During World War One (1914-1918), women's work efforts were very important to winning
the war, and people's attitudes were increasingly in favor of women having the right to
vote. Women then gained the right to vote in Canada, the United States, and Great Britain.
Gradually, other democracies around the world also recognized women's right to vote.
Today, it seems difficult to believe that women were not allowed to vote only a few
generations ago. But there is still progress to be made. In most countries, women are
under-represented among political leaders. Perhaps the day will soon come when women
are elected as often as men.

 Article 50 Samuel Clemens, or Mark Twain
Mark Twain was the author of some of the greatest works of American English literature,
such as Tom Sawyer, Life on the Mississippi, and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.
Mark Twain's real name was Samuel Langhorne Clemens. He used Mark Twain as his
"pen name".
Samuel Clemens was born in the American state of Missouri in 1835. As a child he
enjoyed many outdoor activities, such as swimming and fishing. When Samuel was
eleven years old, his father died, and he began working to help support his family.
As a young man, Samuel Clemens began to write stories for newspapers. However, he
took a job working as a navigator on the steamboats that travelled up and down the
Mississippi River. Clemens greatly enjoyed this period of his life, during which time he
gained much knowledge about life on the river. He also learned much about human
behaviour by observing the many people on the boats and along the river. It was as a
result of this time that Clemens began using his pen name, Mark Twain. This name is
taken from a term that was used by the men who worked on the river. It is used to
describe water that is just deep enough to be navigated safely.
The earliest of Mark Twain's really famous novels was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.
This novel describes a boy who engages in much mischief, but who has a kind heart. The
story contains several scenes that are quite funny. In one of these, Tom is working at the
boring task of painting a fence. He persuades several other boys to help him, by pretending that painting the fence is a fun and enjoyable activity.
Another famous novel by Mark Twain was Life on the Mississippi. This book describes
many interesting characters similar to those that Twain actually observed while working
on a steamboat. This story gives the reader a vivid image of the people who lived and
worked along the Mississippi River.
Probably the best novel by Mark Twain was The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. This
novel tells the story of a boy who runs away from his violent father. The boy, whose
name is Huckleberry Finn, is joined in his escape by a man named Jim. Jim is a slave
who has decided to run away from his owners. Huck and Jim travel north along the
Mississippi, hoping to reach the areas where slavery is not allowed. In this story, the
reader can experience the moral sense of Huckleberry, who must make several important
decisions during the escape.
Mark Twain died in 1910, after writing many more novels and many stories of his travels
around the world. Twain's works are still widely read today. His books are appreciated for
their humor, for their interesting descriptions of life in nineteenth century America, and
for showing both the good and evil that people can do. Many critics consider Twain to
have been the greatest American writer.

 Article 51 The Islands of the Caribbean
The Caribbean Sea is the large body of water that lies north of the northern tip of South
America. Within the Caribbean sea are many islands that have played an important role
in the history and culture of the Western hemisphere.
By far the largest island in the Caribbean is Cuba. Cuba was formerly a colony of Spain,
but became independent in 1902. Cuba became a Communist country in 1959, when a
revolution overthrew an unpopular government. After the revolution, many Cubans fled
to the United States. Today, the American city of Miami, in the state of Florida, has been
greatly influenced by Cuban culture. Tobacco is widely grown in Cuba, and the country is
famous for the cigars that are produced in the capital city, Havana.
The island of Hispaniola is located just east of Cuba. This island is divided into two
countries. In the west is Haiti, where the people speak a variety of the French language
that has been influenced by African languages. In the east is the Dominican Republic,
where the people speak Spanish.
Another important Caribbean island is Puerto Rico. This was previously a Spanish colony,
but it is now governed by the United States. Many people from Puerto Rico have moved
to the mainland United States, especially the New York area.
In many other islands in the Caribbean, English is the main language. The largest of
these islands is Jamaica, which is located just south of Cuba. Most Jamaicans are the
descendants of African people who were brought to work as slaves on sugar plantations.
Jamaica is famous as the birthplace of the style of music called "reggae," which was
popularized in other countries by Bob Marley, a famous Jamaican musician.
Another important English-speaking Caribbean island is Trinidad. This island is located
just north of South America. The population of Trinidad is very diverse. The largest
groups of people are descended from people who came from Africa and India, but there
are many other nationalities also. Trinidad is famous for a style of music known as
"calypso," and for musicians who produce pleasant sounds by playing steel drums.
There are also many other, smaller islands in the Caribbean, each with its own unique features. Many of these islands possess fine beaches, and are popular tourist
destinations. The warm weather of the Caribbean makes it a popular place for North
Americans who must live through cold winters! 

Article 53 How the First World War Started

During the summer of 1914, many people in Europe felt very optimistic about the future.
Modern technology was improving people's lives. Political freedom was gradually
increasing in many countries. New artistic styles and scientific discoveries were being
made. But later that summer, a terrible war began.
In the early twentieth century, the various countries of Europe competed with each other
in an attempt to be the most powerful country on the continent. In each country, many of
the political leaders wanted to control more land, more people, and more resources.
The First World War began when the archduke of Austria-Hungary was assassinated.
Austria-Hungary wanted to punish the assassin, who was from the small country of
Serbia. This led to a serious dispute, and soon other countries were involved. Within a
few weeks, a war had begun. On one side were Germany and Austria-Hungary, and on the
other side were Russia, France, and Britain.
The people in these countries at first welcomed the news of a war. Many people were
intensely patriotic, and supported the war effort without thinking carefully about the
reasons for the war. Some people thought that war would bring adventure and glory to
their lives, and they cheered enthusiastically in the streets.
After the war started, it soon became clear that it was a terrible disaster. In the western
part of Europe, the opposing sides fought many bloody battles. Soldiers on both sides
lived in filthy trenches that had been dug out of the ground. Sometimes, hundreds of
thousands of men were killed in battles that lasted only a few days. In most cases, these
battles did not result in large gains or losses of territory.
The war continued for more than four years. When the war was finally over, millions of
people had been killed. Many people realized that their eagerness to fight against other
countries had led them into a great disaster. This disaster did not end when the war
ended in 1918. During the next thirty years, there would be many violent revolutions in
Europe, and a second major war that would be even worse than the first.
Today, people in most European countries no longer view other nations as enemies.
They have no interest in fighting wars with their neighbours. Instead, they are interested
in trading with the other countries, and in visiting those countries as tourists. The
lessons of the twentieth century have reminded people that wars can have terrible
consequences.

Article 54 Abraham Lincoln
When historians are asked to choose the greatest Presidents in the history of the United
States, one of the names most frequently mentioned is Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln was
President during the greatest ordeal that ever faced the United States-the Civil War.
Abraham Lincoln was born in 1809 in the state of Kentucky, but when he was a child, the
family moved to the state of Indiana. Abraham's parents, Thomas and Nancy Lincoln,
were farmers who were very poor, and they received only a few years of education. When
Abraham was only nine years old, his mother became ill and died. About one year later,
Abraham's father remarried.
As a young man, Abraham continued to work on the family farm, and he also worked as a
laborer. During this time, the Lincolns moved to the state of Illinois. Abraham became
known to the local people as an excellent athlete and story-teller. He educated himself by
reading many books, most of which he borrowed from neighbours.
Lincoln was interested in politics, and when he was in his mid-20s, he was elected to the Illinois state legislature. During this time, Lincoln also studied law, and soon became
known as an excellent lawyer. People called Lincoln "Honest Abe" because of his
personal integrity. In 1842, Lincoln married a woman named Mary Todd.
During the 1850s, Lincoln became strongly opposed the expansion of slavery into the
western parts of the United States. Lincoln held several famous debates against a
supporter of slavery named Stephen Douglas.
In 1860, Lincoln was a candidate in the election for President of the United States. During
this election, the issue of slavery and its expansion was very prominent. Lincoln won, but
soon after, several of the southern states decided to secede from the United States, and
form their own country. A few months later, fighting started between those southern
states and the federal government, which was supported by the northern states.
Lincoln managed the Civil War with skill and determination. Gradually the North began to
win the war. In 1863, Lincoln made the "Emancipation Proclamation," which freed the
slaves. Later that year, Lincoln gave his most famous speech, the Gettysburg Address.
The Civil War had brought terrible suffering to many Americans, and people were very
bitter after the war. But Lincoln wanted the country to become united again, and he urged
people to forgive. However, in April of 1865, only months after the war ended, Lincoln
was shot and killed by an assassin. Many people, even Lincoln's critics, mourned his
death.
In the generations that have passed since Lincoln's death, he has continued to be viewed
as a great President. Some historians have criticized Lincoln for not being more strongly
opposed to slavery, but others have defended him, saying that Lincoln's approach to the
issue was realistic and humane. But nearly all historians agree that Lincoln was an
honest and brave leader during the most difficult period in American history.

Article 56 Amelia Earhart
Amelia Earhart was one of the most famous airplane pilots of all time. She is famous for
the impressive travels that she made in her airplane, for the mystery surrounding her
death, and for showing that women could perform great feats of aviation.
Amelia Earhart was born in the American state of Kansas, in the year 1897. After
graduating from high school, Earhart studied to become a nurse. She worked as a
military nurse in Canada during World War One, treating injured soldiers. After the war,
she returned to the United States, and became a social worker. But in 1920 she saw
airplanes in a stunt-flying exhibition, and early the next year she took her first ride in an
airplane. It was then that Amelia Earhart decided to become a pilot.
Within a few months, Earhart saved her money and bought a small airplane. She flew
frequently, and improved her skills as a pilot. In 1928, she joined two men in a flight
across the Atlantic Ocean.
But Amelia Earhart's greatest exploits were still to come. In May 1932, she attempted to
become the first woman to fly "solo," or alone, across the Atlantic Ocean. She flew east
from the island of Newfoundland, and faced cold weather, high winds, and dense fog. But
she successfully crossed the ocean, and landed her airplane in a farmer's field in Ireland.
When news of her flight reached the United States, Amelia Earhart had become very
famous.
Later flights by Amelia Earhart were equally impressive. She became the first person to
fly from Hawaii to California, across 4000 kilometres of the Pacific Ocean. She also
became the first person to fly from Mexico City to the New York City area. But in 1937,
she planned her most ambitious flight: a journey around the world.
On June 1st, 1937, Amelia Earhart took off from Miami, Florida. She was accompanied by
her navigator, Fred Noonan. They flew east, making stops along the way. Within one
month, they had flown across three-quarters of the globe, reaching the Pacific island of
New Guinea. On July 2nd, Earhart and Noonan took off from New Guinea, flying toward
Howland Island. This very small island was over 4000 kilometres from New Guinea, and Article #56 Amelia Earhart
Amelia Earhart was one of the most famous airplane pilots of all time. She is famous for
the impressive travels that she made in her airplane, for the mystery surrounding her
death, and for showing that women could perform great feats of aviation.
Amelia Earhart was born in the American state of Kansas, in the year 1897. After
graduating from high school, Earhart studied to become a nurse. She worked as a
military nurse in Canada during World War One, treating injured soldiers. After the war,
she returned to the United States, and became a social worker. But in 1920 she saw
airplanes in a stunt-flying exhibition, and early the next year she took her first ride in an
airplane. It was then that Amelia Earhart decided to become a pilot.
Within a few months, Earhart saved her money and bought a small airplane. She flew
frequently, and improved her skills as a pilot. In 1928, she joined two men in a flight
across the Atlantic Ocean.
But Amelia Earhart's greatest exploits were still to come. In May 1932, she attempted to
become the first woman to fly "solo," or alone, across the Atlantic Ocean. She flew east
from the island of Newfoundland, and faced cold weather, high winds, and dense fog. But
she successfully crossed the ocean, and landed her airplane in a farmer's field in Ireland.
When news of her flight reached the United States, Amelia Earhart had become very
famous.
Later flights by Amelia Earhart were equally impressive. She became the first person to
fly from Hawaii to California, across 4000 kilometres of the Pacific Ocean. She also
became the first person to fly from Mexico City to the New York City area. But in 1937,
she planned her most ambitious flight: a journey around the world.
On June 1st, 1937, Amelia Earhart took off from Miami, Florida. She was accompanied by
her navigator, Fred Noonan. They flew east, making stops along the way. Within one
month, they had flown across three-quarters of the globe, reaching the Pacific island of
New Guinea. On July 2nd, Earhart and Noonan took off from New Guinea, flying toward
Howland Island. This very small island was over 4000 kilometres from New Guinea, and Article #56 Amelia Earhart
Amelia Earhart was one of the most famous airplane pilots of all time. She is famous for
the impressive travels that she made in her airplane, for the mystery surrounding her
death, and for showing that women could perform great feats of aviation.
Amelia Earhart was born in the American state of Kansas, in the year 1897. After
graduating from high school, Earhart studied to become a nurse. She worked as a
military nurse in Canada during World War One, treating injured soldiers. After the war,
she returned to the United States, and became a social worker. But in 1920 she saw
airplanes in a stunt-flying exhibition, and early the next year she took her first ride in an
airplane. It was then that Amelia Earhart decided to become a pilot.
Within a few months, Earhart saved her money and bought a small airplane. She flew
frequently, and improved her skills as a pilot. In 1928, she joined two men in a flight
across the Atlantic Ocean.
But Amelia Earhart's greatest exploits were still to come. In May 1932, she attempted to
become the first woman to fly "solo," or alone, across the Atlantic Ocean. She flew east
from the island of Newfoundland, and faced cold weather, high winds, and dense fog. But
she successfully crossed the ocean, and landed her airplane in a farmer's field in Ireland.
When news of her flight reached the United States, Amelia Earhart had become very
famous.
Later flights by Amelia Earhart were equally impressive. She became the first person to
fly from Hawaii to California, across 4000 kilometres of the Pacific Ocean. She also
became the first person to fly from Mexico City to the New York City area. But in 1937,
she planned her most ambitious flight: a journey around the world.
On June 1st, 1937, Amelia Earhart took off from Miami, Florida. She was accompanied by
her navigator, Fred Noonan. They flew east, making stops along the way. Within one
month, they had flown across three-quarters of the globe, reaching the Pacific island of
New Guinea. On July 2nd, Earhart and Noonan took off from New Guinea, flying toward
Howland Island. This very small island was over 4000 kilometres from New Guinea, and Article #56 Amelia Earhart
Amelia Earhart was one of the most famous airplane pilots of all time. She is famous for
the impressive travels that she made in her airplane, for the mystery surrounding her
death, and for showing that women could perform great feats of aviation.
Amelia Earhart was born in the American state of Kansas, in the year 1897. After
graduating from high school, Earhart studied to become a nurse. She worked as a
military nurse in Canada during World War One, treating injured soldiers. After the war,
she returned to the United States, and became a social worker. But in 1920 she saw
airplanes in a stunt-flying exhibition, and early the next year she took her first ride in an
airplane. It was then that Amelia Earhart decided to become a pilot.
Within a few months, Earhart saved her money and bought a small airplane. She flew
frequently, and improved her skills as a pilot. In 1928, she joined two men in a flight
across the Atlantic Ocean.
But Amelia Earhart's greatest exploits were still to come. In May 1932, she attempted to
become the first woman to fly "solo," or alone, across the Atlantic Ocean. She flew east
from the island of Newfoundland, and faced cold weather, high winds, and dense fog. But
she successfully crossed the ocean, and landed her airplane in a farmer's field in Ireland.
When news of her flight reached the United States, Amelia Earhart had become very
famous.
Later flights by Amelia Earhart were equally impressive. She became the first person to
fly from Hawaii to California, across 4000 kilometres of the Pacific Ocean. She also
became the first person to fly from Mexico City to the New York City area. But in 1937,
she planned her most ambitious flight: a journey around the world.
On June 1st, 1937, Amelia Earhart took off from Miami, Florida. She was accompanied by
her navigator, Fred Noonan. They flew east, making stops along the way. Within one
month, they had flown across three-quarters of the globe, reaching the Pacific island of
New Guinea. On July 2nd, Earhart and Noonan took off from New Guinea, flying toward
Howland Island. This very small island was over 4000 kilometres from New Guinea, and was very difficult to find in the middle of the vast ocean.
During this flight, Earhart and Noonan were in radio contact with some ships from the
U.S. Navy. However, bad weather made it impossible to see the stars at night, so
navigation was very difficult, and the plane became lost. Earhart and Noonan never
arrived at Howland Island. The U.S. Navy undertook a massive search, but they never
found the lost airplane. Earhart and Noonan had been lost at sea.
Amelia Earhart's death was a great tragedy, but she had lived an exciting life that was full
of achievements. She had helped to show that very long flights could be made, and that
women could perform feats of flying that were equal to those of men. Even today, many
people are inspired by the courage and endurance of Amelia Earhart. 

Article 57 Life in Academia
A person like me, who teaches and conducts research at an academic institution, is
called "academic." The academic institution may be a form of a university, a college or
another post-secondary institution. I have been working in universities for almost eleven
years. While enjoying my life in academia, we "academics" also have a lot of stress and
often go through a large amount of stress and frustration.
Firstly, we have pressure from the university we are working at to become effective
teachers. As the environment (in terms of the society and the marketplace) has become
more dynamic and competitive, we, as teachers, must provide students with necessary
skills and knowledge so they can become successful in their society. It requires a lot of
preparation, updating of material, self-learning, and continuous improvement in teaching.
For these reasons, teaching and learning should complement each other.
Secondly, we have pressure from both our university and our academic peers to become
active and effective researchers. What we teach to our students in class is no doubt
closely related to what we have learned or discovered from our research activities.
Thirdly, we have pressure from the university and the community to become good
corporate citizens through active participation in various university committees and/or
the community at large. A university and the community it belongs to must work closely
together to identify common interests and to conduct projects that could benefit both
parties.
Even with a high degree of the aforementioned pressures, I love my job as a teacher,
scholar, and citizen. There is a high level of freedom and flexibility. Academia is a place
to meet new people, to create new ideas, and for everyone in that community to learn. It
is a place where both teaching and learning always take place.

 Article 59 Business Education
What is business? A business includes all the activities involved to create and sell a
product or service. The most important functional areas of business include: accounting,
finance, marketing, production/operations, and human resources management.
Accounting is a field of business that records and reports the flow of funds through a
firm on a historical basis and produces important financial statements such as balance
sheets and income statements. It also produces forecasts of future conditions such as
projected financial statements and financial budgets, and evaluates the firm's financial
performance against the forecasts.
The finance area of business supports a firm in decisions concerning the financing of the
firm's business and the allocation and control of financial resources within the firm.
Major activities of finance include cash and investment management, capital budgeting,
financial forecasting, and financial planning. The cash and investment management
activities forecast and manage the firm's cash position and short-term and other
securities. The capital budgeting activity involves evaluating the profitability and risk of
proposed capital expenditures. The financial planning process evaluates the present and
projected financial performance of the firm and projects the firm's future financial needs.
The marketing function of business is concerned with the planning, promotion, sale, and
distribution of existing products or services in existing markets, and the development of new products and new markets in order to better serve existing and potential customers
with quality products and services. It is also responsible for customer relationship
management, product planning, pricing, advertising, after-sale service, and market
research and forecasting.
The production/operations function focuses on the management of all activities
concerned with the planning and control of the processes producing goods or services.
These activities include purchasing of raw material and parts, product design, inventory,
manufacturing processes, facilities location and layout, quality control, and such other
logistics as distribution and transportation.
The human resource management function involves the recruitment, placement,
evaluation, compensation, and development of a firm's employees. With the main goal of
the effective and efficient use of a firm's human capital, the human resources
management function supports planning to meet the personnel needs of the business,
development of employees to their full potential, and control of all personnel policies and
programs.
While each of the aforementioned functional areas within a firm used to operate
somewhat independently with its own objectives and resources, information and other
computer technologies have integrated all business functions within the firm and created
something called "an Internet worked e-business enterprise."

Article 60 Strategic Uses of Information Technology
What is information technology? How can information technology be used in an
organization to improve its efficiency? How much investment should an organization
make in information technology? What are the business benefits and opportunities an
organization may achieve from using information technology? These are some of the
most important questions many organizations ask themselves before investing their
capitals in information technology.
In an academic term, information technology is defined as hardware, software,
telecommunications, database management, and other information processing
technologies used in computer-based information systems. There are many ways that
organizations may view and use information technology. However, in today's competitive
business environment technology is no longer an afterthought in forming business
strategy, but it is the actual cause and driver. In other words, for a firm to maintain or
improve its business competitiveness it must use information technology to achieve
strategic advantage.
Information technology can help a company substantially reduce the cost of business
processes and lower the costs of customers or suppliers.
Information technology can help a company differentiate its products and services from
others.
Using information technology, a firm can create new products and services or make
radical changes to business processes.
A firm can use information technology to manage regional and global business
expansion or to diversify and integrate into other products and services.
A firm can use information technology to create virtual organizations of business
partners or to develop alliances with customers, suppliers, and other business partners.
Information technology can dramatically improve the efficiency of business processes and the quality of products and services.
Using information technology, a firm can build a strategic information base of all the
information collected.
Some experts argue that use of information technology has become a strategic necessity
rather than a strategic advantage, because most competitive advantages don't last more
than a few years. Whether the statement is true or not, most companies may not want to
wait too long before investing in information technology because it would be tough to
catch up later once you get behind your competitors, especially when everyone is
playing with newer, better technology. 

Article 62 The First Five Years of My Life in Canada
I left Korea 25 years ago for Toronto, Ontario, Canada. I was 17 years old at that time.
Now everyone knows how old I am. As any immigrant who left his or her own country for
a new place looking for a better life, I believe the first five years of my living in Canada
were the most challenging ones.
It did not take long time for me to realize that I would have to face one of the biggest
challenges in my life: the language problem. Although I had learned English in high
schools for almost for five years before coming to Canada, I did not find it useful in dayto-day living at this new place. My frustrations, stemming from lack of my English
conversation skills, included ordering food at a fast-food restaurant, phone conversation,
and conversations with neighbors.
The most frustrating moment was my inability to explain to other people when I was
accused of something I did not do. Knowing that I was not able to defend myself properly
due to lack of conversation skills, a few people often took advantage of me for their own
benefits.
However, throughout the years I met a lot of good people who gave me strength and
encouragement. Among those people in my heart I still remember Mrs. Overholts. Mrs.
Overholts was working in the Counsellor's Office at the high school I attended for two
years, and she gave me a lot of valued advice and directions in regards to my academic
life, as well as my personal one.
My dear friends in my high school also helped me not only to survive in the new country
but also taught me the new cultures and systems. Some of them went to the same
university as I did, while others went to different institutions. I am still in contact with
many of them, but wherever they are I believe they are making a positive contribution to
the society.
I owe the most to my father; my mother, who passed away seven years ago; and my
brothers. We were neither rich nor poor, but we stuck together all the time. My parents
taught me love, care, and kindness through their actions, not just their words. It was
from my family that I got strength when I was weak. It was my family who listened to me
when I needed to talk. It was my family who really was happy for me when I told them
good news.
The first five years of my life in Canada surely was one of the most difficult times in my
life. I believe, however, that it was also an important time period in my life for me to
become a more mature and independent human being. I thank all of those who played a
role in some way to help me out during the transition period of my life.

 Article 63 Great Lakes
The Great Lakes are a group of five large freshwater lakes in North America that are
interconnected by natural and artificial channels. They are (from east to west): Lake
Ontario, Lake Erie, Lake Huron, Lake Michigan, and Lake Superior. Most of them, except
Lake Michigan, which lies entirely within the United States, form part of the border
between the United States and Canada.
The Great Lakes are bordered by the Canadian province of Ontario and by eight U.S.
states including (from west to east) Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio,
Michigan, Pennsylvania, and New York. Large cities like Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, and
Toronto lie on the shores of the Great Lakes system. The Great Lakes system, with a
combined surface area of 244,100 sq km, holds about 20 percent of the world's fresh
surface water.
Lake elevations decrease to the east and south. Lake Superior, the largest lake at 82,100
sq km, is also the largest freshwater lake in the world. Its outlet is the Saint Mary's River,
which enters Lake Huron after falling about 7 metres over a series of rapids. Lake Huron
and Lake Michigan lie at the same elevation. Water flows from Lake Michigan to Lake
Huron. Lake Michigan is deeper than Lake Huron, but the latter is larger in area, at 59,600
sq km.
Lake Huron drains into the Saint Clair River, which falls about 3 metres between Lake
Huron and the small, shallow basin of Lake Saint Clair. Lake Saint Clair is connected to
Lake Erie by the Detroit River. At its northeast end, Lake Erie empties into the Niagara
River, which drops 99 metres as it flows north to Lake Ontario, which is the smallest of
the Great Lakes at 19,010 sq km. Lake Ontario is linked with the Atlantic Ocean via the St.
Lawrence River.
The Great Lakes, interconnected by rivers, straits, and canals, are a natural resource of
tremendous significance in North America; they serve as the focus of the industrial
heartland of the continent and together form one of the world's busiest shipping arteries.
The lakes also form an important recreational resource with about 17,000 km of shoreline,
rich sport fisheries, and numerous beaches and marinas.

Article 65 For the Record
What is the world's tallest mountain and highest elevation? Of course, Mt. Everest, on the
border of Nepal and Tibet, China, is the world's tallest mountain and highest elevation
with a peak at 29,035 feet (or 8850 m). The National Geographic Society revised the
height of Mt. Everest in 1999 from 29,028 feet (or 8848 m) due to new GPS calculations.
What is the world's tallest mountain from base to peak? Mauna Kea in Hawaii is the one.
Its base is on the sea floor, and it rises 33,480 feet (or 10,314 meters) in total, reaching
13,796 feet (or 4205 m) above sea level.
In reference to its towering height of 20,320 feet above sea level, Mt. McKinley in Alaska
is the tallest mountain in North America. It has been named "The Roof of North America"
or "The Chimney of North America."
Located about 55 kilometers drive from Amman, Jordan the Dead Sea in the Middle East
region is the lowest point on Earth. The sunset touching distant hills with ribbons of fire
across the waters of the Dead Sea brings a sense of unreality to culminate a day's visit to
the lowest point on earth, some 1,320 feet (or 400 meters) below sea level. En route a
stone marker indicates "Sea Level," but the Dead Sea itself is not reached before
descending another 400 meters below this sign. As the name suggests, the sea is devoid
of life due to an extremely high content of salts and minerals. But it is these natural
elements which give the waters their curative powers, recognized since the days of
Herod the Great, more than 2,000 years ago. They also provide the raw materials for the
renowned Jordanian Dead Sea Bath Salts and cosmetic products which are marketed
worldwide.
Badwater basin, the floor of Death Valley National Park in California, is the lowest point in
the western hemisphere with 282 feet (or 85 meters) below sea level. Death Valley
National Park, established in 1933, has more than 3.3 million acres of spectacular desert
scenery, interesting and rare desert wildlife, complex geology, undisturbed wilderness,
and sites of historical and cultural interest.

 Article 66 Canadian Universities
There are about fifty standing-alone, 4-year degree-granting universities in Canada.
Unlike the higher education system in the United States, most of the universities in
Canada are publicly funded institutions although there are a few private institutions.
These public universities are funded and regulated by the province to which they belong.
In British Colombia there are four publicly funded universities: University of British
Columbia, Simon Fraser University, University of Victoria, and University of Northern
British Columbia; and one private university: Trinity Western University.
In Alberta the three publicly funded universities are University of Alberta, University of
Calgary, and University of Lethbridge.
In Saskatchewan the two publicly funded universities are University of Saskatchewan
and University of Regina.
Moving into Manitoba, there are three publicly funded universities in the province. They
are University of Manitoba, University of Winnipeg, and Brandon University.
Ontario is not only the most populated province in Canada but also has the largest
number of universities. It has 17 publicly funded universities. They are (from west to east
and south to north): University of Windsor, University of Western Ontario, University of
Guelph, University of Waterloo, Wilfred Laurier University, McMaster University, Brock
University, York University, University of Toronto, Ryerson University, Trent University,
Queen's University, University of Ottawa, Carleton University, Laurentian University,
Nipissing University, and Lakehead University.
The Province of Quebec has seven publicly funded universities with many of them
having several branch campuses throughout the province. They are University of
Montreal, University of Quebec, Laval University, Concordia University, McGill University,
University of Sherbrooke, and Bishop's University. While French is the official language
of instruction at most of these institutions, English is the official one at both Concordia
University and McGill University.
Canada's Atlantic Provinces have the rest of the fifty universities in Canada. They are
University of New Brunswick and University of Moncton in the Province of New
Brunswick; Acadia University, Dalhousie University, Mount Allison University, Mount
Saint Vincent University, Saint Mary's University, and Nova Scotia Agricultural College in
the Province of Nova Scotia; University of Prince Edward Island in the Province of Prince
Edward Island; and University of Newfoundland in the Province of Newfoundland and
Labrador.

Article 68 Sport Canada
Sport Canada is the name of Canada's federal government program to help support
athletes. The purpose of Sport Canada is to develop and encourage sport, health, and
exercise programs for all Canadians. However, Sport Canada's main emphasis is on
high-performance athletes training for major international athletic competitions, such as
the Olympic Games.
Sport Canada was created in the 1970s as a response to the perceived need to help
athletes train and compete in international sport. Before the 1970s, athletes wishing to
train and compete in sport had to support themselves financially. Athletes were either
independently wealthy, or were supported by family or friends. Unfortunately, many highcaliber athletes without such financial support simply could not afford to train and
compete in international competition.
Also, before the early 1970s almost all international sports events were amateur. Amateur
rules meant those receiving funds from government programs or corporations were
breaking the rules of sport. Athletes receiving money were disqualified from competition.
As a result, the amateur rules generally limited training and competition to those athletes
who came from wealthier families. Less fortunate athletes, many of whom likely would
have performed well for Canada in international competitions, simply could not afford to
do so.
Sport Canada has been a role model for many government-run sport programs around
the world. With its central administrative offices in Canada's capital of Ottawa, Sport
Canada efficiently provides administrative, coaching, and financial help for athletes
across the country. Athletes can concentrate their efforts full-time on training and
competition. As a result, Canada's share of the medal totals in the Olympic Games has
risen since the 1970s.
Recently, Sport Canada's programs have been criticized by some who feel that the
program does not provide enough money for athletes. While it does provide financial
assistance to athletes, the amount paid is well below Canada's minimum wage. Critics
point out that athletes work full-time and perform an important function for the Canadian
government and people. As a result of this criticism, the Canadian government has
provided more money for athletes. However, the amount is still below the minimum wage
level. As a result, the amount paid to athletes is likely to rise in the future.
As long as it effectively manages problems such as funding, Sport Canada will continue
to provide the Canadian public with international-caliber athletes who compete with the
very best in the world.

Article 69 The National Hockey League
The National Hockey League (or NHL) is the largest and most successful North American
professional hockey league. The NHL provides Canadians and Americans with the
highest caliber and most entertaining hockey on the continent.
The NHL was created in 1917 by a group of Canadian and American businessmen. Their
two central goals were to create a league that provided the most entertaining hockey in
North America and generated revenues and profits. This was a somewhat new idea at the
time. While there were some for-profit leagues in existence, most were amateur. This
meant that players, coaches, and owners of teams were not allowed to make money from
playing the game of hockey.
It took several decades for the NHL to become the most dominant league. In the early
days, a few professional or commercial leagues competed with the NHL for the public's
entertainment dollar. Leagues competed vigorously for the best players in order to be
successful and attract spectators and fans. While this was beneficial to players because
they could command higher salaries, it was bad for business because owners' expenses
skyrocketed. As a result, many teams and leagues went bankrupt.
By the 1930s, however, the NHL remained as the only major professional league in North
America. This effectively kept players' salaries down and reduced expenses. The NHL's
team owners realized that in order for the league to be a successful commercial business,
they would have to stop competing against each other off the ice. This was best
accomplished by ensuring that only one major league existed, so that competition was
reduced. To this day, the same business model is followed, and the NHL is still the only
major professional hockey league in North America.
For several decades in the mid-twentieth century, the NHL owners were extremely
successful financially. They generated very high profits because, having a monopoly on
in the hockey market, they could limit the sale and trade of players. When players signed
on to a team, they generally did so for life, and at the pay rate determined by the owner.
Players were forced to accept these conditions because there were no other leagues in
existence.
This all changed in the 1970s when players organized to form a players' union. Through
the collective bargaining process, players gradually fought owners for higher pay and
greater rights. Today, many players are very wealthy for this reason. If it was not for the
players' union, it is likely they would still be working in similar conditions to those during
the early days of the NHL: low pay and little freedom to move from team to team.
With NHL owners and players cooperating, the NHL continues to be the most successful
and entertaining hockey league in North America. Teams across Canada and the United
States compete for the prized Stanley Cup, the most sought-after trophy in North
American hockey.

Article 71 Participation
"ParticipAction" was the name of the Canadian government program designed to
encourage Canadians to get and stay physically fit. Created in 1971 by the federal
government, ParticipAction was successful in encouraging Canadians to be active and to
stay healthy.
ParticipAction was created by the Canadian Liberal government of Prime Minister Pierre
Trudeau. Trudeau believed that sport and recreation should play an important role in the
lives of Canadian citizens. His government took two steps towards the accomplishment
of this goal. First, a government agency was created to provide funds for high
performance athletes, such as those training and competing in the Olympic Games. A
second agency was created to encourage participation and physical activity in the
general Canadian population. It was out of this second agency that ParticipAction was
born.
ParticipAction became famous in the 1970s because of a series of television
commercials. In these commercials, a young Canadian in his 20's was seen being out- run by a 60-year old Swedish man. The message was that Canadians had become lazy
and inactive. This was probably true of Canadians at the time. Physical fitness was not
highly encouraged in schools, especially for women. Also, the government played little
role in encouraging physical activity before ParticipAction.
The result of ParticipAction was impressive. Canadians became more active in the years
following the program's inception. Also, fitness and activity were encouraged through
physical education programs. ParticipAction was seen as a positive program because it
got Canadians active while reducing health care costs caused by inactivity and poor
physical conditioning.
Recently, ParticipAction was terminated by the federal government because of a lack of
funding. Many people thought this was a shame given the positive messages the
program gave to otherwise inactive Canadians. Despite the program's termination,
ParticipAction has made a long-lasting impression on Canadians. Hopefully, its positive
example of physical fitness for Canadians will continue in the future.

Article 72 The Olympic Games
The modern Olympic Games began in the late-nineteenth century as a revival of the
ancient Greek Olympics. Now just over one hundred years old, the modern Olympic
movement is the biggest and most important sports movement in the world. In fact, many
people believe the Olympic Games to be the most important cultural event of any kind in
the world.
The modern Olympic Games were the brainchild of Frenchman Baron Pierre de
Coubertin. De Coubertin's dream for an international sports event and cultural movement
became a reality in 1894 at the International Athletic Congress in Paris. After the Games
were constituted in 1894, the first Olympic Games was held in Athens, Greece, in 1896, in
recognition of the ancient Greek Olympic Games.
The original purpose of the Olympic Games in de Coubertin's mind was to celebrate and
strengthen the physical, mental, and cultural qualities of humanity. The Games would
blend sport with culture, tradition, and education. The philosophy of Olympism is based
on the joy of physical and mental effort and the respect for universal ethical principles.
De Coubertin envisioned creating a more noble and sympathetic humanity through the
Olympic movement.
The sports events themselves de Coubertin modeled after the English public school
sport system. He saw in upper-class English boys' sport the qualities of camaraderie,
nobility, and honesty. Most importantly, however, was adherence to the rules of sport, in
particular the rule that stated sport ought to be amateur in nature. De Coubertin believed
participants should never participate in sport for the purpose of making money. To do so
would contradict the underlying philosophy of sport. Breaking the amateur rule in de
Coubertin's time was as serious a violation as taking drugs to enhance performance is in
today's world of sport.
Over time, the Olympics grew to be the largest international festival of any kind. Today,
debates exist as to the degree to which the modern Games adhere to de Coubertin's
original intent. On the one hand, Olympic sport is truly international in nature, as de
Coubertin would have wanted it. On the other hand, it is doubtful that de Coubertin would
have admired the existence of politics, commercialism, and drug use in sport. The
Olympics have become truly international, but perhaps at a price. There is little question that the Olympic Games hold out the possibility for fulfilling de
Coubertin's original goal of sport contributing to a better, more peaceful, and
understanding world. 

Article 74 Professional Sport in Canada
Canada is a relatively young country, existing as a separate national and political entity
only since 1867. As a result, its sporting traditions are relatively young as well. Most of
the professional teams and leagues in Canada developed only in the last 30 years or so.
However, athletes playing their respective sports for money dates back to the latenineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
Canada has six National Hockey League (NHL) teams, eight Canadian Football League
(CFL) clubs, two Major League Baseball (MLB) clubs, and one National Basketball
Association (NBA) team. There are also smaller professional soccer and lacrosse
leagues in Canada. It is estimated that professional sports and leagues throughout the
country contribute over $600 million in value to the country's economy, and account for
over 23,000 jobs.
Of the professional sports, hockey has the longest history and the greatest cultural
influence on Canadians. The NHL has been in existence since 1917; however, organized
professional and amateur leagues existed in Canada long before then. Many small-town
teams competed for local or provincial championships, and had a strong influence on
those Canadians who had little access to, or knowledge of, big-city teams in Toronto or
Montreal. In fact, it was not until NHL games were broadcast on the Canadian national
radio "Hockey Night in Canada" radio broadcasts that many Canadians had experienced
an NHL game. Indeed, despite the fact that the NHL was considered Canada's most
prestigious league, it was not until the advent of television in the 1950s that most
Canadians had even seen an NHL game.
Today, all professional sport in Canada is in one way or another affected by the more
powerful American leagues. In the sports of baseball and basketball, Canada has no
professional leagues of its own. Instead, Canadian teams play in the Americandominated leagues. These leagues require a large concentrated audience in order to
generate revenues for the team and, in turn, the league in general. As a result, the major
team franchises exist in the large urban centres: Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver. Even
between those cities, the teams are not evenly spread. Probably the most famous teams
in the American-dominated leagues are both Toronto teams: the "Blue Jays" in Major
League Baseball and the "Raptors" in the National Basketball Association.
Many Canadians worry that the American dominance of professional sport is a threat to
Canadian independence. As an important component of national culture, sport reflects
and reinforces the norms and values of Canada. However, the most sought-after and
visible teams in Canada are ones in American-dominated leagues. Even the National
Hockey League-once considered a secure Canadian sports icon-has its corporate offices
in New York. Debates about the threat of American-dominated professional sport to
Canadian sovereignty will undoubtedly continue in the future.

 Article 75 Ned Hanlan
Edward (Ned) Hanlan (1855-1908) was one of the most important athletes in Canadian
history. Hanlan, an oarsman, helped shape the direction of Canadian sport in its early,
formative years. His combination of athletic success and popularity with rowing
spectators helped promote the cause of rowing and professional sport.
In the late-nineteenth century, rowing was one of the, if not the, most popular sports in
Canada. The sport received as much if not more press coverage and general public
interest than any other sport. In addition, the sport's long history in Canada, Great Britain,
Australia, and the United States developed into well-organized national and international
championships, including one of the first regularly held World Championships in any sport. In fact, Hanlan was a regular winner of World Championship titles.
Part of the popularity of rowing involved gambling and lucrative prizes. Spectators
regularly bet on single sculling, in much the same way they do on horse racing today.
Hanlan quickly rose to fame in the late-nineteenth century through a combination of
careful financial planning of his athletic career and his mastery of the sport. Perhaps his
most ingenious invention was the now-common "sliding seat." By fixing wheels onto a
wooden seat, Hanlan gained an advantage over his competitors, who slid back and forth
in the boat on grease. The extra use of his legs translated into greater boat speed for
Hanlan.
Hanlan was also note-worthy for his methods of gaining popularity with fans.
Recognizing the importance of the entertainment value of sport, Hanlan would regularly
wave to the crowds and perform rowing "tricks" such as removing his hands from the
oars in the middle of the race. He was even known to fake an injury in the middle of a
race, only to recover just in time to win the race. Of course, the additional purpose of this
strategy was to raise gambling odds, thus making himself and his financial handlers
wealthier from his victories.
In the 1870s and 1880s, Hanlan won and then successfully defended his World
Championship title seven times. He also competed in commercial exhibitions and rowing
tours around the world. After his competitive career ended, Hanlan went on to coach
younger oarsmen in two North American universities: Toronto and Columbia. So famous
was Hanlan that one major newspaper in Canada claimed he was the single greatest
agent for attracting new immigrants to the young country. Today, a bronze statue stands
in Toronto in honour of his success, and an island just off the shores of the city of
Toronto is named after Hanlan. 

 Article 77 Tiger Woods
One of the most dramatic moments in golf occurred on April 13, 1997. On that day,
Eldrick "Tiger" Woods, at the young age of 21, won the prestigious Masters golf
tournament. Not only was Woods the youngest ever to perform the feat, Woods' score of
270 set a record for the tournament. His victory was also seen by many as a symbolic
victory over years of racism in the sport of golf, and U.S. society in general. Woods'
victory in 1997 came just two days after the fiftieth anniversary of the day American
baseball players broke the colour barrier in professional baseball. Also, Woods' victory
came in a sport long recognized for racial exclusion. The Augusta National Golf Club
excluded blacks from playing in the Masters tournament until 1975, and the Professional
Golfers Association only removed its "Caucasians only" rule in 1961.
Woods was born in the state of Florida in 1975. He rose to fame quickly, winning the US
amateur tournament from 1994-96, National Collegiate Athletic Association champion in
1996, and US Junior championship from 1991-1993. In the first year that Woods turned
professional, it is estimated that over $650 million (U.S.) in extra revenue was generated
in golf. Television ratings soared in the sport, and the Professional Golfers Association
negotiated huge contracts with American television networks as a result of Woods' fame.
Woods has also negotiated record-breaking private sponsorship deals with major firms
such as Nike, Buick, Titleist, American Express, and many others. In fact, Woods
negotiated deals in the millions even before he turned professional. Truly an international
sports celebrity, Woods sees himself as someone destined not only to be a great athlete,
but also a person who will have some significant social or political impact on the world. It
is not clear, however, what that impact will be. But there is little question that he will be
one of the, if not the, richest athletes in history. Woods is destined not just to be a multimillionaire, but a billionaire.
Heralded by some as the first black champion in a traditionally racially secluded sport,
he has also been received more cautiously by those who see the limitations of using black sports stars as role models for youth. Only a tiny fraction of African Americans
have even a remote chance of becoming sports stars in any sport, especially golf. The
odds, in fact, are so small that there is a much greater chance of winning a lottery.
However, by some accounts as many as 80% of African American youth aspire to make a
living from playing sports. Meanwhile, 45% of African American children live below the
poverty line in the U.S.
If the trajectory of Woods' career continue on its current path, it is possible he will satisfy
his father's wishes for Tiger: "to make an impact on the world. . .it will be spiritual and
humanitarian and will transcend the world of golf." 

Article 78 Globalization and Sport
One of the most recognized and widely debated terms in recent times is "globalization."
While there is little consensus as to what it actually is, there is little doubt that the world
has in one way or another become more inter-connected. Mass communications and
transportation technology, in addition to the rise of transnational corporate culture, have
combined to produce a new global culture.
At the same time, sport has become one of the most recognized elements of global
culture. In fact, it has been claimed that there are no other events in the world that attract
the attention of more people around the world than sports events, especially the Olympic
Games and the World Cup football (soccer) tournament. It is difficult to think of other
events that attract the world's attention in the same manner as sport.
Global themes infuse international sporting events in several ways. One of those ways is
in advertising. Major transnational corporations using major events like the Olympic
Games advertise with global themes and images. In addition, media coverage of major
events often emphasizes national and international themes. These themes can be both
positive and negative. For example, sport can reinforce international cooperation and
cultural learning, but it can also be used to reinforce themes of aggressive nationalism
and create tension between countries. This was clearly the case during the Cold War
from World War II to the late-1980s, in which West Bloc and East Bloc nations regularly
did battle at the Olympic Games.
More recently, additional global themes have appeared. The international immigration
and movement of athletes is one theme. Increasingly, professional and elite amateur
athletes are attracted to other. Football (soccer) is one sport that practices "athlete
immigration" frequently. Many professional teams in Europe, for example, have many
players from outside the team's nation.
An additional global theme that has appeared lately is sport used for international
advertising and marketing. Sport provides a very useful device for transnational
marketing and advertising because the symbols provided by sport are often recognizable
internationally, and sport provides many of the themes and images important to
advertising: speed, strength, competition, perseverance, and so forth. Major
corporations such as IBM and Coca-Cola regularly use sport to advertise their products,
even though these corporations don't sell sport-related products directly.
Some critics have claimed that major international events such as the Olympic Games
are being used less for international understanding and culture sharing as they are for
making big corporations a lot of money. While it is clear that the sport-related images
and symbols used by these corporations are recognized worldwide, it is not so clear what positive benefits are accrued from this. In any case, there is little doubt that sport
will continue to play a vital role in the globalization process. 

 Article 80 Sport and Television
There is little question that television has radically changed the sporting world.
Television has done more than just make existing sports more accessible to a mass
audience. It has been argued that the very nature of sport and spectators' experiences of
sport has been shaped by the medium of television.
The first televised sporting event took place on May 17, 1939. A baseball game between
two American schools-Princeton and Columbia-marked the beginning of a new era in
sport. The first broadcast, however, was not of particularly high quality. Viewers could
hardly see the players on the television screen, the technology at the time being of very
low quality. In addition, very few people owned television sets at the time. Only 400 TV
sets were in circulation, and the average cost of $600 made owning a set impossible for
most people.
This situation would soon change. Television as a popular and affordable medium grew
rapidly in the 1940s and 1950s. By the end of the 1950s, American televised sport entered
a "Golden Age." It was during this period of time that major sporting organizations, such
as professional leagues, and major amateur organizations, such as the International
Olympic Committee (IOC), realized the benefits of television. Not only could TV make
competitions available for a huge number of spectators, it could actually make money for
these organizations. Television companies, in turn, could make money by attracting
viewers and selling advertising space at increased rates. Television and sport entered
what some observers call a "symbiotic" or mutually beneficial relationship.
The business relationship developed between the American TV company ABC and the
Olympic Games is a clear example of the TV-sport symbiosis. In the 1960s and 1970s,
ABC recognized the importance of using international sport to attract viewers. By being
recognized as "The Olympic Network," ABC quickly rose from being the third biggest
commercial network in the U.S. to being the leading network. At the same time, ABC paid
higher and higher "rights fees" to the IOC, and the IOC, in turn, began to take a more
commercial and professional approach to the Olympic Games. The ABC role model has
paved the way for other television networks around the world. Today, television rights
pay for the majority of Olympic Games expenses.
The television and sport relationship has come a long way since the first
Princeton/Columbia baseball game. Today, more people experience sport as spectators
through the medium of television than they do as regular participants in sport. The
television and sport relationship, then, presents a bit of a paradox. While on the one hand
it has made sport more visible for more people, it has perhaps done so at the expense of
actual participation in sport.

Article 81 Nike
Nike and its swoosh corporate symbol are among the most recognized brand names in
world, alongside McDonalds, Coca-Cola, and Disney. Starting in 1964 as a sport shoe
outlet, the company grew to become the market leader in footwear and apparel. Nike has
since diversified into a range of activities, including sports event promotion.
Owned by Phil Knight, Nike has become synonymous with world-class sport, especially
through its sponsorship of events and elite athletes such as Michael Jordan and Tiger
Woods. Nike is so ever-present in the sports consumers' minds, that a survey conducted
during the Atlanta Summer Olympic Games in 1996 revealed an extremely high
awareness of Nike, despite that fact that Nike was not an official sponsor of the Games.
Nike's success has, to a great extent, been due to the fact that the company and its
swoosh symbol have become ubiquitous in consumers' minds. Nike has even run
television commercials without even mentioning its own name, being confident enough
that the checkmark swoosh is more than enough to make the company known.
Phil Knight has been the main inspiration behind Nike and its corporate direction. A
competent, although not elite, middle distance runner at the University of Oregon, Knight
went onto Harvard business school where the Nike idea emerged out of a paper he
developed for a class on entrepreneurship. Knight's former coach, Bill Bowerman,
developed lightweight running shoes that became the new company's trademark in the
early days. From these modest beginnings, Nike eventually grew to become the sports
giant it is today.
Ironically, part of Nike's status in the world of competitive sports merchandising has
come from the attention it's received by critics. A short article published in the early-
1990s in Harper's Magazine quickly mushroomed into an international outcry against
Nike's practice of placing their factories in underdeveloped countries and paying workers
below-subsistence wages. Nike quickly responded to the criticisms with a number of
tactics to either divert attention away from the criticisms (ones that Knight, interestingly,
at first denied), or by acknowledging the practices but claiming Nike was "cleaning up its
act."
In many cases, Nike has made an effort to create better working conditions for those in
underdeveloped countries making shoes and other merchandise. However, the overall
effect of Nike's changes is not known, and several groups around the world regularly
check, and often criticize, Nike's labour practices.
Nike's recent marketing extravaganzas include a $200 million (U.S.) deal with the
Brazilian National Soccer Federation. It has been rumoured that Knight's ego has much
to do with Nike's marketing strategies. Some critics have suggested that Knight's hidden
agenda is no less than controlling sports marketing and merchandising throughout the
world. Nike's corporate headquarters in Oregon reflect these aspirations. Nike's
buildings and surrounding grounds are constructed very much like a religious cathedral,
only with elite athletes, and Knight himself, as the gods.

Article 83 Bjorn Borg
The professional career of tennis player Bjorn Borg was one of the most interesting ones
in recent sports history. Borg's success in his sport came at an early age. Borg won
Wimbledon when he was only 20 years old. However, by the time he was 26, and in the
prime of his career, Borg inexplicably retired from professional tennis.
Borg, who began playing tennis at the age of nine, was the number one ranked junior
player by the age of 14, and had won the Italian and French Open titles at the age of 18.
These were the first of several major championships won by Borg in the late-1970s and
early-1980s. Probably his greatest achievement was a winning streak at Wimbledon that
spanned five years. Between the years 1976 and 1982, Borg enjoyed almost complete
dominance in competitive tennis.
His retirement in 1983, then, was a bit of a puzzle. Although his tennis skills waned
somewhat in the previous year, he was still one of the top players on the tour, and only
26 years old. Even stranger was the fact that Borg refused to reveal the reasons for his
retirement.
Following his retirement, Borg encountered a number of personal problems, which kept
him in the media spotlight even though he was no longer playing competitive tennis. Five
years after his retirement, an emergency hospital procedure saved his life. While Borg
claimed he had food poisoning, it was suspected he had a barbiturate overdose. In 1991,
Borg attempted to make a comeback on the professional tennis tour, only to fail
miserably. His insistence on using a wooden racket at the time, when all of the world's
top players were using synthetic fiber rackets didn't help matters. At the same time,
Borg's second wife attempted to commit suicide, and the couple divorced in 1993.
Eventually, Borg disappeared into obscurity, and there is little news of his life today.
These sad stories about the latter part of his career aside, Borg was an important figure
in modern tennis history. He was the sport's first modern media star and icon. Teenage
girls conferred upon him a status comparable to a rock star. His face adorned t-shirts and
other merchandise, making him the most marketable tennis player in history. Borg's
career was a catalyst for Swedish tennis players. Those who followed in his footsteps
and held him up as their hero included tennis stars Mats Wilander and Stephan Edberg.
Perhaps most important of all, Borg gave to the sport of tennis a degree of showmanship,
visibility, and marketability that was used as a role model for the sport in future decades.

Article 84 "Babe" Didrikson
Mildred "Babe" Didrikson (1913-1956) was one of the most celebrated female athletes of
the first half of the twentieth century. Competing in the 1930s and 1940s, when
conventional attitudes regarding women's participation in sport dominated North
American culture, Babe Didrikson rose to fame by dominating not just one, but a number
of sports.
Didrikson flouted conventional notions of femininity and "proper" female activity by
excelling in field events such as javelin and shot-put, in addition to traditionally maledominated sports such as baseball, swimming, and golf. Interestingly, Didrikson would
always have to battle popular accounts that attacked or questioned her femininity and
sexuality. As a woman with a large, muscular and athletic body, Didrikson was often
accused of having an "unfair advantage" over other women, and often regarded as not
being a "real woman."
Born in the state of Texas, Didrikson rose to athletic fame quickly, representing the U.S.A.
in the 1932 Olympic Games in Los Angeles where she won and set records in the javelin
and 80 metre hurdles. Later in her career, Didrikson turned her athletic attention mainly
to golf, a sport in which she was immensely successful. Interestingly, however, Didrikson
tired of the popular innuendo regarding her "unfeminine" appearance and made a
conscious effort to change her image in favour of a more traditionally feminine one: she
donned dresses and make-up in place of her sweat pants and makeupless appearance.
Didrikson's controversial career underwent a twist when she fought the American
Athletic Union (AAU), which had stripped her of her amateur sports status after she
allowed her image to be used in endorsements for cars. When offered amateur status
reinstatement, Didrikson refused, challenging what she believed to be the AAU's
antiquated rules and regulations.
Aside from her incredible athletic accomplishments, Didrikson is an important historical
figure because of the challenge she made to the male-dominated institution of sport.
Didrikson challenged those within the institution of sport to question gender values at a
time when the political environment made it difficult to do so. Didrikson prefigured by
several decades the challenges to sport made by other female athletes such as Billie
Jean King, Martine Navratilova, and Florence Griffith Joyner. Didrikson forced a reexamination of the meaning of sports, making many aware of the social and political
importance of an institution typically not thought of as such.

Article 86 FIFA
Created in 1904 with seven member nations, FIFA (Federation Internationale de Football
Associations) is the international governing body of soccer. Soccer is the most widely
watched and played game in the world. FIFA organizes the World Cup, which takes place
every four years.
In many ways, the development of FIFA follows the organization of the sport of
football/soccer itself. At the start of the twentieth century it was primitive in its
organization and loosely structured. However, by the end of the century, FIFA had
affiliations in all six continents, with over 170 member countries. Alongside the
International Olympic Committee, FIFA is the largest sports organization in the world.
At the time of FIFA's creation, soccer had gained a following in several countries, in large
part due to British settlements. It was not until 1863 that the sports of soccer and rugby
were formally separated in England. While both sports were important in British culture
in the nineteenth century, it was soccer that took off around the world at a much more
accelerated rate. As the twentieth century progressed, countries like Holland, Germany,
Spain, Brazil, and many others became as good as, and in many cases better at the game
than, the founding country.
The World Cup began in 1930 in Uruguay. By then, FIFA had attained enough power and
the game was so widespread that a world championship was justified. By the time the
1998 World Cup was staged in France, 112 countries competed. Despite the sport
originating in England, that country did not win a World Cup until 1966.
One notable exception to the soccer fanaticism that is seen in many countries around the
world is the U.S.A. There has always been a problem developing soccer in the country
that dominates so many other professional and amateur sports. One of the main reasons
for this is the country is inundated with its professional sports system. For one reasons
or another, the U.S.A. has opted for sports traditionally played in relatively few countries:
American-style football, basketball, and what many consider to be the quintessential
American sport, baseball. There is also the problem soccer presents for American
television networks.
Successful sports in the U.S.A. have usually been ones appropriate for commercial
television. Soccer, with its two 45-minute halves and long, uninterrupted play, is less than
ideal for commercials and advertising-based American television.
The most recent evolution in soccer has been in the women's game. The 1999 Women's
World Cup held in the U.S.A. was an unqualified success. Indeed, FIFA's president
proclaimed that "the future of football is female."

Article 87 International Olympic Committee
The International Olympic Committee (IOC) was formed in 1896 to govern the
organization and development of what were understood to be a modern version of the
Greek Olympic Games. Its first president was Dimitros Vikelas, a Greek, and its secretary
was Frenchman Pierre de Coubertin. De Coubertin's energy and his vision have been the
true inspiration behind the modern Olympic movement.
The IOC has effectively governed the Olympic movement for over 100 years. However,
that period of time has seen many conflicts and controversies within the IOC and in the
Olympic movement as a whole. At first, the main obstacle de Coubertin faced to creating
an international Olympic movement was the lack of organization of sport internationally.
Early sports organizations-most of them amateur-had trouble organizing their own sports
and leagues nationally. As a result, cooperating with the IOC internationally was an
extreme challenge.
In the early years, de Coubertin's own vision for the Games dictated much of the IOC's
policies and procedures. His prejudices also influenced the movement. For example, de
Coubertin was adamant in his rejection of female athletes' participation in the Games. An
embodiment of Victorian ideals and prejudices, de Coubertin thought women's place was
in the home, and bearing and raising children. Indeed, he thought of women's
competition as unnatural, immoral, and "indecent." As a result of de Coubertin's
powerful position within the IOC, it would take many years to have women participating
in any significant way.
The IOC has always claimed a "hands-off" approach to political struggles and
controversies surrounding the Games. Claiming, now for over 100 years, that the IOC is
not a political organization, and that sport in its purest sense (one represented best by
the IOC, of course) is inherently nonpolitical, the IOC has always had trouble answering
critics who point out obvious exceptions to the claim. At the simplest level, the act of
competing under national flags-something the IOC encourages-is a political event. At a
higher political level, the Olympic Games have been used for political demonstration
through boycotts, and the Olympic movement was probably the most visible means of
symbolically fighting the Cold War.
The post-World War II years were lean ones for the Olympic movement. The IOC and
hosting cities and nations often had trouble breaking even. At its worst, the Games went
into great financial debt, most notoriously in the Summer Games in Montreal in 1976.
However, since that time, the Games have taken a more "market friendly" approach,
encouraging private sponsorship and negotiating massive television contracts with
networks around the world, especially those in the U.S.A. As a result, the IOC is a much
more financially solvent organization than it was a few decades ago. However, it is not
clear that the IOC is following its founder's original plan for the movement. After all, de
Coubertin was a pure amateur at heart. The current commercially oriented Olympics
would make de Coubertin concerned, to say the least.

Article 89 Michael Jordan
Michael Jordan is one of the most recognized sports figures in the world. To understand
the breadth of his fame, it is probably best to think of Jordan in two senses: as a person
and an athlete with incredible athletic prowess and skill, and as a cultural and media icon.
The second way of thinking about Jordan is probably equal to the first. After all, it was
his endorsement of dozens of commercial products, spots in movies, and in general his
commercially- and market-produced image that made Jordan so famous worldwide.
Jordan was born in 1963, one of three sons of a corporate executive. He attended North
Carolina University from 1981-84, and was then drafted to the National Basketball
Association's (NBA) Chicago Bulls. During the same year, he co-captained the U.S.A.
basketball team to gold in the 1984 Summer Olympic Games in Los Angeles.
Jordan's fame was quickly accelerated with the help of his agent and a marketing firm.
After winning the NBA's Rookie of the Year distinction, Jordan quickly began signing a
series of marketing contracts that would eventually create the iconic image known
throughout the world. The most notable marketing endorsement contract came with Nike
Corporation. Nike built much of its marketing and commercial strategy around Jordan in
the 1980s and early 1990s. With his own line of Nike-produced basketball shoes and
clothing, Jordan established himself as a marketable commodity. The relationship
between Nike and Jordan would be a mutually beneficial one. It elevated Jordan to
international prominence, while helping push Nike to number one status as world sports
merchandiser.
Jordan's athletic status was also aided by the fact that his was a career with relatively
little controversy, unlike many other superstar athletes. Social and political controversies
surrounding Jordan were rare, and when they did occur these were minor. In 1992, he got
himself into a bit of trouble when he did not allow his image to be used by the NBA for
the licensing of leisure wear and memorabilia in the run-up to the Summer Olympic
Games. In addition, once at the Games, Jordan, being contractually committed to Nike,
refused to wear the official sponsor Reebok's warm-up suits. The issue was resolved
when Jordan and his teammates wore the U.S. flag and extra long lapels to cover the
Reebok logo.
In 1993, Jordan made a surprise announcement of his retirement from the NBA at the age
of thirty. He signed as a free agent to play Major League Baseball with the Chicago White
Sox, and played-unsuccessfully as it turned out-with the White Sox minor league affiliate.
Jordan then made a brief comeback in the NBA, only to retire soon after. History will
recognize Jordan not only for his athletic prowess-arguably the best the sport of
basketball has ever seen-and for his iconic status in the later-twentieth century world of sport's marketing and image production .

 Article 90 Billie Jean King
During her competitive days, Billie Jean King was one of the most successful players in
women's tennis. However, King is probably more recognized for her political support of
women's tennis, and her fight to achieve respect for lesbian and gay athletes in tennis,
and in sport in general.
Born in Long Beach, California in 1943 as Billie Jean Moffatt, she began playing tennis at
the age of 11. King learned the game playing on municipal courts, rather than the route
most successful players take in tennis in the private clubs. When King began competing
in the elite levels of tennis, the sport was strictly amateur. She first entered Wimbledon in
1961, and only two years later she advanced to the final. She won her first Wimbledon
title in 1966, at the young age of 22. Her first place prize for winning was a $60 gift
voucher for Harrods department store. By the end of her remarkable career, King would
amass a remarkable 39 Grand Slam titles.
Although women's tennis was amateur, King and a few other players began arguing for
professional status. Indeed, King's competitive performances and training regimen took
on a very professional tone. In fact, it was King, and not men's player John McEnroe,
who started the practice of arguing against umpires' decisions on the court, although it
is the latter player who is better known for such antics. King's training and competitive
practices made her a truly modern and "professional" player, but they also cost her
much public support.
King's major initiative was to start a professional tour, which began in 1968. Operating
outside the auspices of the "official" tournaments and organizations, the new
professional tour had trouble attracting many of the top international players.
Interestingly, Wimbledon allowed professionals soon after King's tour started. The rest of
the world's tours permitted professionals soon after.
Among King's other major political initiatives, she aligned herself with the pro-abortion
movement, Title IX legislation in the U.S. (the purpose of which was to equalize girls' and
women's funding in education), and she negotiated a deal with the Philip Morris Tobacco
Company to set up the Virginia Slims tour. Finally, the famous match between herself and
self-styled "male chauvinist pig" Bobby Riggs in 1973, which King won, brought much
public attention to King and to the growing women's athletic movement.
Finally, in 1981, it was revealed that King had a lesbian relationship with her secretary. At
first King denied the allegation, but later she admitted to the relationship. Instead of
hiding her sexuality, which is what female lesbian athletes had been doing for years,
King was the first major sports superstar to come out. As such, King will be justifiably
recognized as one of the first and most important fighters for the sexual rights of gays
and lesbians in sport.

Article 92 National Football League
The NFL (National Football League) is one of the, wealthiest and most powerful sports
organizations in the world. Many of the single franchises or teams are worth $200-300
million each. As such, each team should be thought of as a major corporation.
American-style football, of which the NFL maintains a complete monopoly over the elite
professional ranks, has its roots in English rugby, which was played in U.S. Eastern
colleges and universities in the nineteenth century. However, rugby did not have features
in keeping with American cultural norms. So U.S. football arose out of norms consistent
with American society, such as clearly measured possession of territory and the
expansion of frontiers through conquering new land.
Walter Camp, a Yale player, devised the rules of the American game. In 1880, he
introduced "downs" into the game, or breaks so that teams could re-assess their
position and prepare for the next attack. This was in stark contrast to rugby's non-stop
and more flowing play. This move would years later be crucial to the sport's success.
With natural breaks in play, the game would be one conducive to American commercial
television, which relies on advertisement breaks for the generation of revenue. Equally
important was the later inclusion of the forward pass into the game. This made the game
appear more offensive, and the famous "Hail Mary" long pass is to this day one of the
most dramatic plays in sport.
Football's success as a dominant American sport (alongside baseball) was secured in
the 1960s with some important contracts with television networks. The ABC television
network sponsored a rival American Football League to compete with the other dominant
National Football League. ABC television did not hide the fact that the rival league was
created for the sole purpose of creating more leverage with advertisers. After gaining
greater legitimacy and earning more revenue, the up-start AFL was able to negotiate
independently with other television networks and sign on big-name players. The most
notable was star quarterback Joe Namath. With the AFL rising as a legitimate business
competitor, the NFL and AFL negotiated a merger, resulting in the NFL league, as it is
known to this day. Since the merger, the NFL has maintained almost a complete
monopoly over American professional football.
Football's success, then, has been a reflection of the ideals of American society and,
more specifically, of American-style commercial enterprise. The league's success has, in
no small part, been due to the relationship between the media and the sport. In a sense,
football is a perfect example of a modern media-generated sport, successfully linking
American norms and values with a sport tailor-made for commercial profit.

Article 93 Jackie Robinson
On April 15, 1947, Jackie Robinson (1919-1972) became the first African American to play
in the Major League Baseball league. On that day, he started for the Brooklyn Dodgers.
The so-called "colour-line" had existed in baseball and many other sports for decades in
American sports: the complete segregation of whites and blacks into separate leagues
and teams.
There had been blacks in the sport of baseball for many years. In fact, in the nineteenth
century blacks had played alongside whites in several leagues in the U.S. However, an
1896 court case reinforced the segregation baseball players according to the colour of
their skin. As a result, black players were excluded from major league baseball, relegated
either to the position of mascot for the Major League team, or forced to organize their
own loosely structured "Negro" teams.
Robinson, the son of a sharecropper and grandson of a slave, excelled in several sports
before serving in the U.S. army. Initially a player in the Negro Leagues, Robinson played
in a period when there was increasing support for breaking down the colour barrier. The
Brooklyn Dodgers' manager took on Robinson mainly because Robinson was a solid
player, not because he was interested in challenging the colour barrier. Also, he felt it
would increase attendance at the Brooklyn games, especially of African American fans.
In 1946, Robinson went to Florida to play for the Montreal Royals, the Dodgers' farm team.
This move was risky on Robinson's part, as racism was still rampant in the U.S.,
especially in the South. In Florida, there were segregation laws that prohibited blacks
and whites from sharing the same restaurants, hotels and other public places, including
the baseball field. Robinson was forced to stay in a "coloureds-only" hotel. It was
believed that there would be a greater chance of Robinson being integrated into the
minor league in the more liberal and open environment of Canada.
Eventually, Robinson played his way into the Major League. However, the transition was
not a smooth one. In his first year, he had many pitches thrown his way and was
regularly taunted by fans and players. However, his season was a successful one, and he
was voted Rookie of the Year. Robinson's Major League career lasted 10 years. Despite
his initial success in breaking the colour line in baseball, it would take many decades
before there would be complete acceptance of black players. To this day, there is underrepresentation of blacks in management and coaching positions in baseball.
Robinson died in 1972. His headstone bears an epitaph that he wrote: "A life is not
important except in the impact it has on other lives."

Article 95 O. J. Simpson
It has been argued that the trial of Orenthal James (O.J.) Simpson for murder was the
defining cultural experience of the U.S. in the 1990s. It dominated the front pages of
newspapers in the U.S. and many other countries for several months. Indeed, Simpson
was for a period of time probably the most talked about person in the world, but very few
of the discussions were about his athletic career.
Until his internationally famous trial, Simpson was a relative unknown outside the U.S. A
very wealthy and highly decorated former professional football player, Simpson made the
transition to acting and television commentating after his illustrious football career.
However, when he was charged in June of 1994 with the murder of his estranged wife
Nicole Simpson and her friend Ronald Goldman, and after his dramatic suicide getaway
attempt captured by television cameras, Simpson became known throughout the world
almost overnight.
Simpson was born in San Francisco in 1947 to a poor family. His father abandoned the
family, and it was his mother who encouraged Simpson to pursue sport, mainly to
compensate for some physical problems he had developed as a child. Simpson became
a solid baseball and football player early in his life and went on to enroll in the City
College of San Francisco, where he continued to play impressive football. With offers
from over fifty other universities to play football, Simpson went to the University of
Southern California. There, he played out a distinguished college career and earned
himself the 1968 Heisman Trophy for top college player in the U.S.
Simpson began his professional career by dropping out of school before graduation and
immediately signing a three-year endorsement deal with Chevrolet for $250,000. Drafted
by the Buffalo Bills in 1969, the first few years of Simpson's professional career were
undistinguished ones. However, from 1972 on, a new coach for the team made Simpson
the central figure in the team's offence. As a result, Simpson would go on to shatter
several running records in the National Football League. At the conclusion of his career,
Simpson was inducted into the Professional Football Players' Hall of Fame.
After his professional football career, stories about Simpson's alleged abuse of his wife
began circulating. Nicole Simpson made the first call to police after an incident at a 1989
New Year's Eve party, in which Simpson was fined $200. Over the next few years Nicole
would make thirty emergency calls to the police, none of which led to formal charges.
After the incidents surrounding Nicole's death and Simpson's subsequent flight from
police, an exhaustive months-long trial ensued, leading to Simpson's famous acquittal.
More than just a murder trial, however, O.J. Simpson's trial highlighted the racial
tensions in the U.S. In fact, history will undoubtedly remember Simpson more for his trial
than for his illustrious football career.

Article 96 Fosbury Flop

American athlete Dick Fosbury devised the high jump technique known as the "Fosbury
Flop." His new technique revolutionized one of the oldest events in track and field
competition. While Fosbury never broke the world record using his new technique, other
high jumpers were inspired by his gold medal at the 1968 Summer Olympic Games in
Mexico City, where he introduced his new jumping technique.
Fosbury was born in 1946 in Oregon and went to Oregon State University. He won the
gold medal in the Olympic Games at the very young age of 21. It was assumed that his
odd-looking new method for clearing the bar was based on a careful study of the physics
and biomechanics of high jump technique. However, Fosbury claimed it was the product
of pure intuition.
Prior to Fosbury's invention, most high jumpers used a "straddle" technique. In this
older style of jumping, the front leg led the jumper up and over the bar in a face down
position. Fosbury's technique involves approaching the bar in a curve with a last second
acceleration. Then, at the point of take-off, the body rotates, positioning the back to the
bar and leaping backwards. The head faces the sky as the body arches over the bar with
the mid-body and legs trailing behind.
Fosbury had begun experimenting with the technique when he was only sixteen years
old. In a meet in 1968 in which Fosbury used his new technique, a local newspaper's
headline read, "Fosbury flops over the bar." Thus, the name of the newly invented
technique was born.
Since Fosbury's competitive days, his technique has been widely copied. Once
experienced jumpers mastered the technique, records started to fall in the sport, due
mostly to the Fosbury Flop, but also to better equipment and running surfaces. Dick
Fosbury will always be known for his revolutionizing of the sport of high jump.

Article 98 New Zealand
New Zealand is a country that is located in the South Pacific ocean. The country is made
up of two large islands, the North Island and the South Island, which are separated by a
narrow channel of water. Although New Zealand has many beautiful mountains and
forests, much of the land is used for farming. In fact, New Zealand has almost 70 million
sheep, but only four million people! New Zealand's farms are also famous for their
delicious fruit, especially apples and kiwi fruit.
About ten percent of the people who live in New Zealand belong to an ethnic group called
the Maori. The Maori came to New Zealand by boats from small Polynesian islands. They
arrived about 1000 years ago, and lived by farming, hunting, and fishing. About 200 years
ago, many more people came to New Zealand. These people were from the British Isles,
and they came to New Zealand to begin farms. Today, most of the people of New Zealand
are descended from people who came from Britain.
During the 19th century, some wars started between the Maori and the British settlers.
After years of fighting, the two sides signed a treaty to end the wars. Today the Maori
have achieved equal rights, but there are still some disagreements about land ownership.
In recent years, many more people have come to New Zealand, mostly from Asian
countries and from other Pacific Islands.
There are three large cities in New Zealand. Auckland is the largest city, with more than
one million people. It is located in the northern part of the North Island. The capital city of
New Zealand is Wellington. It is located in the southern part of the North Island. The
largest city of the South Island is Christchurch. The cities of New Zealand are very
modern and clean. Many tourists enjoy visiting the cities of New Zealand, but they also
enjoy the beautiful countryside. New Zealand is an excellent place for outdoor recreation,
such as climbing or walking.
Most of New Zealand has a mild, or temperate, climate. The summer is not very hot, and
the winter is not very cold. Because New Zealand is in the southern part of the world, summer begins in December and winter begins in June. The South Island is cooler than
the North Island, but both islands have similar amounts of rain. This rain gives the fields
and forests of New Zealand a beautiful green colour. Each year, many tourists visit New
Zealand, to experience the beautiful countryside and the interesting cultures of its people. 

 Article 99 Track and Field
In many parts of the world, the sport of track and field is very popular. Actually, the sport
of track and field includes many different sports. In some of these sports, the athletes
run on a track. The athletes race against each other to find out who can run the fastest.
Some of these track events require great speed for a short distance. In the 100 metre race,
the athletes must sprint as quickly as possible. Some athletes can run 100 metres in only
10 seconds!
Other track races are much longer, and these events require great endurance. In the
marathon, the athletes must run a distance of 42 kilometres. Because this is such a long
distance, the athletes cannot run too quickly at the start. Instead, it is important to run at
a steady pace and keep some energy for the end of the race. Some athletes can run the
marathon in little more than two hours!
Some races are called middle distance races because the distance is not very short, yet it
is also not very long. For example, the 1500 metres requires a mixture of speed and
endurance. Some athletes can run the 1500 metres in less than four minutes! There are
also some track events for people who use a wheelchair. Wheelchair athletes can race
even faster than athletes who run!
Some of the races on the track are for teams of four runners. Each athlete carries a small
stick called a baton. After running a certain distance, the runner must hand the baton to a
team-mate, who then runs with the baton. To win this race, the team's runners must be
very fast, but they must also cooperate very well with each other.
In the field events, athletes compete by jumping or throwing. In the long jump, the
athletes run up to a line, and then try to jump as far forward as possible. In the high jump,
the athletes must try to jump over a very high bar. Another field event is called the shot
put. In this event, the athletes try to throw a heavy metal ball as far as possible. Yet
another field event is called the javelin throw. In this event, the athletes try to throw a
long spear as far as possible. Athletes who compete in the throwing events must be very
strong!
Both men and women compete in the sport of track and field. Many boys and girls enjoy
track and field as part of their education in school. Those boys and girls who have much
talent, and who work very hard, might someday compete in the Olympics. But for most
people, track and field is just a fun and healthy way to get exercise and to make friends.

Article 101 Capital Punishment, or The Death Penalty
In some countries, there has been much debate surrounding the issue of capital punishment.
“Capital punishment” is another term for the death penalty-the idea that some crimes should be
punished with death for the criminal who commits them.Capital punishment has existed at some
time within virtually all countries. In English-speaking countries, the use of capital punishment is
much more limited nowadays than it was in the past.
For example, in 18th century England, there were over 200 “capital crimes,” including petty theft
and forgery! Few criminals were actually put to death for these minor offences, but the laws were
changed so that only very serious crimes, such as murder or treason, would be punished by death.
During the 19th and 20th centuries, many people began to believe that capital punishment was
always wrong. They argued that the death penalty was a cruel form of punishment, and that no
state had the right to take the life of an individual. Many countries began to abolish the death
penalty, and today most countries no longer use capital punishment.
Several countries, such as China and Saudi Arabia, continue to use capital punishment.
Among English-speaking countries, the United States is the most prominent example of a country
that still has the death penalty. However, some of the states within the USA have eliminated capital
punishment.
There has been much debate within the United States (and other countries) about capital punishment.
Some people are in favor of the death penalty, for several reasons. Some argue that a person who
commits an evil crime such as murder deserves capital punishment. Others argue that the death
penalty may deter criminals from committing crimes. Others argue that capital punishment is the
only way to be certain that a criminal will not commit crimes again.
Many other people are against the death penalty, for several reasons. Some argue that it is simply
cruel and immoral to kill another person, even as punishment for committing terrible crimes. They
argue that the death penalty does not really deter crime, and that the death penalty is usually
applied to people who are poor or who belong to minority groups. They also point out that
innocent people are sometimes mistakenly convicted and executed, and that the death penalty does
not allow those mistakes to be corrected.
The issue of the death penalty will probably continue to attract debate for many years to come.
But it seems that capital punishment is gradually being eliminated throughout the world.

Article 102 Continental Drift
Did you know that Europe and North America are slowly moving away from each other,
at the rate of about four centimetres per year? This movement seems far too slow to be of
any importance, but over a period of millions of years, continents can move great distances
across the surface of the Earth.
Until the early 20th century, scientists assumed that the locations of the continents were fixed.
But a young German scientist named Alfred Wegener began to question that assumption.
He noticed several facts that suggested the possibility that continents could move.
First, Wegener noticed that the coastlines of some continents seemed that they could fit together.
A good example of this is the west coast of Africa and the east coast of South America.
This suggested that these continents had long ago "broken apart" from each other.
Also, Wegener knew that some similar species of animals lived on continents that were very far
apart. This made him wonder if those species had once been a single species that lived in one
homeland. Those species would then have diverged when the continents divided.
In addition, Wegener found that some of the landforms on distant continents were quite similar.
For example, the rocks that make up the mountains of Scotland are similar to the rocks that make
up the mountains of the eastern United States.
At first, Wegener's idea was ridiculed by many scientists. They thought that his theory of
continental drift was absurd. Part of the reason for this was that Wegener did not know how this
movement of continents could happen. Unfortunately, Wegener died in 1930, at the age of 50, when
he was on a scientific expedition to Greenland.
During the 1960s, scientists realized that Wegener had been right. New discoveries showed that
the continents rested on top of giant "plates," that could slide around the Earth, above a layer of
molten rock. Today, the idea of continental drift has been shown to be basically correct.
The movement of continents accounts for the creation of many mountain ranges, which rise when
continents slowly collide. It also accounts for the creation of many valleys, which sink when
continents slowly break apart. Continental drift also explains why the fossils of tropical plants and
animals are sometimes found on islands in very cold places: those islands had once been located in
warmer parts of the earth!
Wegener's theory of continental drift was a revolutionary and radical idea. Eventually, however, this
theory turned out to be correct. It is too bad that Wegener did not live to see the
acceptance of this theory.